indian legend tells of a time when all was water; then land was made; for a long time the earth was too wet for human beings and at last the earth was dried out by a mighty fire. all these are pretty stories for those who are looking for deluge legends and the effects of blazing comets, but if the indian account is true, the drying process was carried entirely too far in the southwest. water! water! water! the word gains a new significance in this arid region. there is a rippling, cooling, refreshing note in it, a soothing of parched lips and a guaranty against death from thirst. so, all conversation among the people is replete with references to this mainstay of life, and one comes, like them, to discuss the water question with an earnest regard for its problems.
wherever there is water, almost always will there be found ancient ruins. in modern times the windmill of the settler often stands by the spring which quenched the thirst of the ancient inhabitants of a now crumbling pueblo. the blessings which were invoked in biblical times upon the man who “digged a [50] well” apply also in this semi-desert, for syria and arizona do not differ greatly in climate. the bedouin with his horses and camels would not be out of place on the sand wastes of our sahara; nor were the spanish conquerors on unfamiliar ground when they exchanged the dusty plains and naked sierras of their native land for those of the new world.
the traveler in spain, northern africa, or asia minor is impressed with the similarity between these countries and our southwest, so that the name of new spain, early applied by the spaniards to all of mexico, seems very appropriate. like these countries, too, our southwest is a land of thirst; the dry air and fervent sun parch the skin and devour every trace of moisture. (one feels as though he were placed under a bell glass exhausted of air undergoing the shriveling process of the apple in the experiment.)
so, before taking a journey, one inquires not so much of the roads and distances, but whether water may be found, for it is often necessary to submit to that most unpleasant of contingencies, a “dry camp.” many parts of arizona and new mexico cannot easily be visited except in favorable seasons, because one is told, “it’s a hundred miles to water.” the hopi often provide for the long journeys across waterless country by hiding water at points along the route. this wise precaution, which was noticed by the spanish explorers of the sixteenth century, consists of burying sealed water-jars in the sand, their situation [51] being indicated by “signs.” far from the ancient or modern habitation these jars, uncovered by the wind, are often discovered by riders on the cattle ranges.
not only must the dusty explorer “haul water,” for even the railroads across the semi-desert are provided with tank trains for water service, and the water tanks of the huge locomotive tenders of all trains are of unusual capacity.
far out on the sandy, sage-brush plains are frequently seen small cairns of stones, called by the knowing ones “indian water signs,” pointing out the direction of water, but the more common signs are the trails made by cattle on which a myriad of tracks in the dust point to water, miles away perhaps, and oftentimes, when the tracks are not fresh, leading to a dried-up pool, surrounded by carcasses or bleaching bones.
the navaho herdsman or herdswoman is a person with great responsibility, for the sheep and ponies must have water at least every three or four days. when a well-defined thunder-storm passes within twenty or thirty miles of his camp he starts for the path of its influence, knowing that there will be pools of water and quick-springing herbs and grass. this chasing a thunder-storm is novel—and much more satisfactory than chasing a rainbow. even the wild cattle scent the water and make for it, running like race-horses.
as a matter of fact, the animals of the desert have [52] of necessity become used to doing without water. so far as one can determine, the rats, mice, squirrels, badgers, coyotes, prairie-dogs, skunks, and other denizens of the sand-wastes so rarely get a good drink of water that they seem to have outgrown the need of it. cattle and horses have also developed such powers of abstinence as might put a camel to shame. there is a belief in the western country that at least one of the burrows of a prairie-dog town penetrates to water, but whether this be true or not, judging from some of the locations of these queer animal villages the tribe of gophers must contain adepts in abysmal engineering.
one does not live long in the wilds of arizona without becoming weatherwise and, perhaps, skilled in signs and trails like a frontiersman. the country is so open that the weather for a hundred miles or more can be taken in at a glance and the march of several storms observed at once, even though the sound of wind and thunder be far out of hearing. at flagstaff, for instance, it is easy to tell when the hopi are rejoicing in a rain, although it is more than a hundred miles away.
in a country with so little rainfall as tusayan and in which the soil consists largely of sand with underlying porous rocks, springs are few and their flow scanty. the rivers, also, during most of the year, flow far beneath their sandy beds, which only once in a while are torn by raging torrents. this is one of [53] the many novelties of a country that probably offers more attractions than any land on earth.
around the springs the life of the hopi comes to a focus, for here, at all hours of the day, women and girls may be seen filling their canteens, getting them well adjusted in the blankets on their backs for the toilsome climb up the trail. a feeling of admiration tinged with pity arises for these sturdy little women who in the blanket tied across the forehead literally by the sweat of their brows carry half a hundredweight of water up a height of nearly half a thousand feet. mang i uh, “tired?” one asks them. okiowa mang i uh, “yes, alas, very tired!” they answer, these slaves of the spring.
at the edge of the water in the spring, where nothing can disturb them, are green-painted sticks with dangling feathers. these are offerings to the gods who rule the water element. at none of the frequent ceremonies of the hopi are the springs forgotten, for a messenger carries prayer-sticks to them and places them in the water. in former times offerings of pottery and other objects were thrown into springs by devout worshippers.
around the springs are gardens in which onions and other “garden sauce” are grown. when it is possible, a little rill is led from the spring into the gardens. the growing greens lend much to the drear surroundings of the springs, but the plants must be enclosed by a stone wall to keep away marauding burros and goats.
[54] at least one spring at each pueblo is dug out and enlarged, forming a pool at the bottom of an excavation ten feet deep and thirty in diameter, with a graded way leading down to the water. these springs are convenient for watering the thirsty stock, but they are especially used in the ceremonies. during the flute dance, for example, they form the theater of an elaborate ceremony in which the priests wade in the spring and blow their flutes in the water.
all the springs have been given descriptive names. at walpi, there are dawapa, “sun spring”; ishba, “wolf spring”; canelba, “sheep spring”; kokiungba, “spider spring”; wipoba, “rush spring”; kachinapa, “kachina spring,” and a number of others, around which cluster many associations dear to the good people of the east mesa. like the hopi, every other human being who fares in the dry southwest unconsciously becomes a devotee of water worship and eventually finds himself in the grip of the powers of nature whom the indians beseech for the fertilizing rain.
springs are often uncertain quantities in this region. earthquakes have been known to swallow up springs in one place and to cause them to burst out at another far away. one can readily imagine what a terrible calamity such a phenomenon can be in so dry a country, for the only thing the people can do under such circumstances is to move and to move quickly. it seems probable that some of the many ancient indian settlements that make the southwest a [55] ruin-strewn region have been caused by just such fickleness in the water supply.
when modern engineering comes to the aid of the hopi in storing the occasional vast rushes of water for use throughout the year, a new era will dawn for the peaceful people. they may then become prosperous farmers and gradually forget the days when they invoked the powers of nature with strange charms and ceremonies.
if the hopi know well the springs, they are not less perfect in knowledge of plants that are useful to them. one day kopeli, the former snake chief, undertook to teach his pupil, kuktaimu, the lore of the plants growing near the east mesa. they set out for a flooded cornfield near the wash, and long before they reached it, they could hear the watchers emitting blood-curdling yells to scare away the hated angwishey, crows, that from time to time made a dash for the toothsome ears.
it goes without saying that the day was beautiful, for in august thunder-cloud masses often fill the sky with graceful forms, tinted beneath by a rosy glow reflected from the surface of the red plains. the rain had started the vegetation anew and the deep green cornfields showed its benign influences.
kopeli was communicative, but kuktaimu, although having been blessed by saalako with a hopi name, was weak in the subtleties of hopi speech and missed many points to which, out of politeness, he responded [56] owi, “yes.” still, the queer-sounding names of the plants and their uses given by kopeli were duly put down on paper, for which the hopi have a word which literally means corn-husk. on their journey around the cornfields they met various groups of watchers, some reclining beneath the sloping farm shelters of cottonwood boughs, some chatting together or gnawing ears of corn roasted in a little fire. everyone requested matches and willingly assisted in conferences over plants of which kopeli might be doubtful. boys with their bows and arrows tried for shots at crows, and little girls minded the babies. life in the fields is full of enjoyment to the hopi, and the children especially delight to spend a day picnicking amidst the rustling corn-leaves.
the plants having been hunted out in the cornfields, kopeli and kuktaimu sought higher ground among the rocks below the mesa, where different species of plants grow. at the foot of the gray rocks are found many plants of great medicinal and ceremonial value to the hopi, according to the snake priest, who grew enthusiastic over a small silvery specimen with pungent odor. “very good medicine,” he said. at this juncture, when the plant had been carefully placed in the collecting papers, kopeli made a characteristic gesture by rapidly sliding one of his palms over the other and said pasha, “all.” the nearness of the evening meal must have been the influence that caused kopeli to say that the flora of tusayan had been [57] exhausted in a single day’s search, for subsequent journeys about the mesas brought to light many other plants that have place in hopi botany.
it is surprising to find such a general knowledge of the plants of their country as is met with among the hopi. no doubt this wonder arises among those who live the artificial life of the cities. the hopi is a true child of the desert and near to the desert’s heart. his surroundings do not furnish clear streams, grassy meadows, and massy trees; there is much that is stern and barren at first glance, and there is a meagerness except in vast outlooks and brilliant coloring. here nature is stripped and all her outlines are revealed; the rocks, plains and mountains stand out boldly in the clear air. still, in all this barrenness there is abundance of animal and vegetal life which has adapted itself to the semi-desert, and if one becomes for the time a hopi, he may find in odd nooks and corners many things delightful both to the eyes and the understanding.
there are few hopi who do not know the herbs and simples, and some are familiar with the plants that grow, in the mountains and canyons, hundreds of miles from their villages. even the children know many of the herbs, and more than once i have successfully asked them for their indian names. this is not strange, because such things are a part of their education and in this way they are in advance of the majority of their civilized brothers. after a while the idea [58] impresses one that the hopi depend on the crops of nature’s sowing as much as on the products of their well-tilled fields. many a time, as the legends tell, the people were kept from famine by the plants of the desert, which, good or bad seasons alike, thrust their gray-green shoots through the dry sands, a reminder of the basis of all flesh.
perhaps all the hopi believe that the wild plants are most valuable for healing and religious purposes, for the plants they use in medicine would stock a primitive drug store. bunches of dried herbs, roots, etc., hang from the ceiling beams of every house, reminding one of the mysterious bundles of “yarbs” in a negro cabin, and, as occasion requires, are made into teas and powders for all sorts of ills.
hopi doctors have a theory and practice of medicine, just as have their more learned white brethren. without the remotest acquaintance with the schools dividing the opinions of our medicine-afflicted race, they unconsciously follow a number of the famous teachings. so, if a patient has a prickling sensation in the throat a tea made from the thistle will perform a cure, as “like cures like.” the hairy seeds of the clematis will make the hair grow, and the fruit of a prolific creeping plant should be placed in the watermelon hills to insure many melons. the leaves of a plant named for the bat are placed on the head of a restless child to induce it to sleep in the daytime, because that is the time the slothful bat sleeps. it is [59] not often that hopi children require an application of bat-plant medicine, but even the best of children get fractious sometimes.
many are the strange uses of plants by the hopi, and much curious lore has gathered about them. some of the plants are named for the animals and insects which live upon them, such as “the caterpillar, his corn,” “the mole, his corn”; while some, from fancied resemblances, are called “rat’s ear,” “bat plant,” “rattle plant,” etc. two plants growing in company are believed to be related and one is spoken of as the child of the other. plants are also known as male and female, and each belongs to its special point of the compass. many are used in the religious ceremonies; those beloved by the gods appear on the prayer-sticks offered to beseech the kind offices of the nature deities.
strange as it may seem, the hopi have medicine women as well as medicine men. the best known of these is saalako, the mother of the snake priest. she brews the dark medicine for the snake dance and guards the secret of the antidote for snake bites. the writer once met at the place called “broad house” a navaho medicine man. he was a wrinkled, grizzled specimen of humanity mounted on a burro and was hunting for herbs, as was seen by a glance into the pouch which he wore by his side. a little tobacco induced him to dismount and spread out his store of herbs. when shown the writer’s collection of plants, he became much interested, no doubt believing that [60] he had found a fellow practitioner. he requested samples of several of the plants, and when they were given him, stored them away in his pouch with every evidence of satisfaction.
the hopi priests are also very glad to receive any herb coming from far off, especially from the sea-coast, “the land of the far water,” as they call it. they treasure such carefully and mix it with sacred smoking tobacco or introduce it into the “charm liquid” which is used in every ceremony to mix the paint for the prayer-sticks and to sprinkle during their strange rites.
an american farmer might be at a loss to recognize a hopi cornfield when he saw one. in the usually dry stream beds or “washes” he would see low clumps of vegetation, arranged with some regularity over the sand. this is the hopi cornfield, so planted in order to get the benefit of rains which, falling higher up, may fill the washes, for the summer thunder-storms are very erratic in their favors.
the hopi farmer sets out to plant, armed only with a dibble which serves as plow, hoe, and cultivator combined. arriving at the waste of sand which is his unpromising seed-field, he sits down on the ground, digs a hole, and puts in perhaps twenty grains, covering them with the hands. whether he has any rule like
one for the cutworm,
one for the crow,
one for luck,
[61] is doubtful, but in the years when cutworms are likely to be plentiful he plants more corn to the hill.
one hill finished, he gets up, moves away about ten feet, sits down, and goes through the same process. he never thins the corn, but leaves the numerous stalks close together for shade and protection from the winds. his care of the field consists merely in hoeing the weeds and keeping a watch on the crows, which he frightens away by demoniac shouts. his scarecrows are also wonders of ingenuity, and many a time one takes them for watchful indians.
when the corn is fit for roasting ears the hopi get fat and there is feasting from morn till night. tall columns of smoke arise from the roasting pits in the fields. these large pits are dug in the sand, heated with burning brush, filled with roasting ears, and closed up tightly for a day. the opening of a pit is usually the occasion of frolicking and feasting, where laughter and song prevail. some of the corn is consumed at once in making puddings and other dishes of which the hopi prepare many, and what remains is dried on the cob and hung in bunches in the houses for the winter.
the ears of the indian corn are close to the ground and are hidden by the blades, which touch the sand. the blades are usually tattered and blown away by the wind, so that by the time the corn is ripe, the fodder is not of much value. the ripe corn is gathered and laboriously carried by back-loads up the steep mesa to [62] the houses, where it is stored away in the corn chamber. here the ears are piled up in symmetrical walls, separate from the last year’s crop, which may now be used, as the hopi, taught by famine, keep one year’s harvest in reserve. once in a while, the women bring out the old corn, spread it on the roof to sun, and carefully brush off each ear before returning it to the granary, for in this dry country, though corn never molds, insect pests are numerous.
among the superstitions connected with corn the hopi believe that the cobs of the seed corn must not be burned until rain has fallen on the crop for fear of keeping away or “drying up” the rains.
no cereal in the world is so beautiful as hopi corn. the grains, though small, are full and highly polished; the ears are white, yellow, red of several shades, a lovely rose madder, blue, a very dark blue or purple which the hopi call black, and mottled. a tray of shelled corn of various colors looks like a mosaic.
in the division of labor, the planting, care of the corn in the fields and the harvesting belong to the men. when the brilliant ears are garnered, then the women’s work begins. no other feature of the hopi household is so interesting as the row of three or more slabs placed slantwise in stone-lined troughs sunk in the floor; these are their mills. they are of graded fineness, and this is also true of the oblong hand stones, or manos, which are rubbed upon them with an up and down motion as in using a washboard. [63] sometimes three women work at the mills; the first woman grinds the corn into coarse meal on the coarse stone and passes her product over to the second, who grinds it still finer, and the third finishes it on the last stone; sometimes one woman alone carries the meal through the successive stages, but it is a poor household that cannot furnish two grinders. the skill with which the woman spreads the meal over the grinding slab by a flirt of the hand as the mano is brought up for the return stroke is truly remarkable, and the rhythmic precision of all the motions suggests a machine. the weird song sung by the grinders and the rumble of the mill are characteristic sounds of the hopi pueblos, and as the women grinders powder their perspiring faces with meal while they work, they look well the part of millers. little girls are early taught to grind, and they often may be prevailed upon to display their accomplishment before visitors.
the finely ground meal is piled and patted into conical heaps on the flat basket trays, making quite an exhibition of which the hopi women are very proud, much meal indicating diligence as well as a bountiful supply of the staff of life. grinding is back-breaking work, and one humanely wishes that the hopi women, and especially the immature girls, could be relieved of this too heavy task.
while corn-meal enters into all hopi cooking as the chief ingredient, most of it is made into “paper bread,” called piki, resembling more than anything [64] else the material of a hornet’s nest. this bread is made from batter, colored gray with wood ashes, dexterously spread very thinly with the hand over a heated slab of stone. piki bakes quickly, coming free from the slab and is directly folded up into convenient compass and so crisp is it that it crackles like paper. sometimes it is tinted with attractive colors for festal occasions, such as the kachina ceremonies.
before a dance the women busily prepare food and the girls go about speechless, with mouths full of meal, “chewing yeast” for the corn pudding. this and other ins and outs of the kitchen make the knowing traveler rather shy of the otherwise attractive-looking hopi food.
surely corn is the “mother” of the hopi. all the powers of nature are invoked to grant a good crop by giving rain and fertility, and the desire for corn is the central motive of the numerous ceremonies of the villagers of tusayan. if the prayers of the hopi could be formulated like the “om mane padme hum” of the hindus, it would be in the smaller compass of these words, “grant us corn!” nor are these simple villagers ungrateful for such blessings. kopeli used to stand looking over his thriving cornfield and say with fervor, “kwa kwi, kwa kwi,” “thanks, thanks,” and it was evident that the utterance was made with true thankfulness and a spirit of devotion.
it is difficult to imagine the ancient people without corn; but very long ago, as the legends tell, they [65] did not know this cereal. certain it is they were not then pueblo dwellers and had not spread far in the southwest. they lived in the places where there was game, and for the same reason that the important food animals lived in such places,—the presence of vegetation that would sustain life.
their life was along the foot hills of well-watered and timbered mountains rising from plains, where with the flesh of game and seeds and roots of plants they could supply their semi-savage wants. long perhaps they roved thus as hunters until they drifted to the land of promise—the semi-desert where agriculture of grain plants was born and there they received “mother corn.” henceforward all the former sources of food wrested from a niggard nature became as nothing to this food of foods, but even to this day the hopi have not forgotten their old-time intimate knowledge of the resources in fields not sown by human hands. with corn, which possesses a high food value and is easily raised, stored, and preserved, the hopi and their pueblo brethren spread without fear throughout the semi-arid lands.
it has been pointed out that a constant diet of corn produces disagreeable physiological effects, and this is suggested for the use of chile and other condiments, the mixture of corn food with meat and vegetable substances, and, in fact, for the multifarious ways of preparing and cooking corn. this necessity for variety also gives an explanation of the resourcefulness [66] of the hopi housewife and has acted as a spur to her invention of palatable dishes.
the vocabulary of corn in the hopi language is extensive and contains words descriptive even of the parts of the plant that are lacking to most civilized people. the importance of corn is also reflected in the numerous words describing the kinds of meal, the dishes made from corn or in which corn enters, and of the various ways in which it is prepared by fire for the consumption of the ever-hungry hopi. to give an incomplete census of corn foods, there are fifteen kinds of piki or paper bread, three kinds of mush; five of short-cake; eleven of boiled corn; four kinds baked or roasted in the coals; two cooked by frying; four stewed and eight of cooked shelled corn, making fifty-two varieties.
after the paper bread, perhaps the most popular food is pigame, or sweet corn mush, wrapped in corn-husk and baked in an underground oven. another standby is shelled corn soaked and boiled till each grain swells to several times the normal size. the hopi like their food well-cooked and know the art of making each starch grain expand to the limit. a book of hopi cookery would be bulky, but how interesting to the housewife who would know how to make plain food appetizing without milk or eggs, and who would learn new and strange combinations! there are cakes made from dried fruits, chopped meat, and straw, put on the roof to dry; dumplings formed [67] around old hammerstones, corn dodgers, pats of corn-meal mush wrapped in corn husk and boiled or baked, and many other styles of food that would seem strange to other than a hopi epicure.
when it is time to dine, a large bowl of stew is placed on the floor as the piece de resistance and beside it a tray of piki. each member of the family breaks off a piece of piki, and, holding it between thumb and finger, it is dragged through the stew much like a seine to catch as many particles of meat as possible, then deposited far back in the mouth so that the stew adhering to the fingers may be cleared off with a resounding smack of the lips. a traveler to hopi in 1869 describes a more formal meal which consisted of mutton, dried peaches, blue piki, coffee, and a drink made by steeping the roasted heart of agave in water. this writer says:
you take a small piece, lay a fragment of mutton and some peaches upon it or a little of the sweet liquid and bolt the mass, spoon and all. this dinner, though prepared and cooked by indians, tasted better than many a meal eaten by us in border settlements cooked by whites.
hopi women assiduously gather the seeds of grasses and other plants, which they grind up and add to corn-meal to improve the flavor of the bread, or, perhaps, a prized bread is made entirely of the ground seed of some desert plant. oily seeds, such as those of the pi?on, pumpkin, and melons are ground to form shortening in various cakes and to add richness to [68] stews. often food is colored with harmless vegetable dyes, no doubt with the deep-laid scheme on the part of the mother of the household to cause the familiar fare to be attacked with renewed zest. our tradition of “spring lamb with mint sauce” is duplicated by stewed rabbit with nanakopshi greens, which, with various other herbs, are put to appropriate uses by the master of the hopi culinary art.
