this hindu epic, an older poem than the mahabharata, was composed in sanscrit some five hundred years before our era, and is contained in seven books, aggregating twenty-four thousand verses. it is often termed "the odyssey of the east," and relates events which are said to have occurred between two thousand and nine hundred b.c. the poem is generally attributed to válmikí, a hermit on the bank of the ganges, who, seeing one bird of a happy pair slain, made use of a strange metre in relating the occurrence to brahma. this god immediately bade him employ the same in narrating the adventures of rama, one of the seven incarnations of the god vishnu.

"praise to válmikí, bird of charming song,

who mounts on poesy's sublimest spray,

and sweetly sings with accents clear and strong

rama, aye rama, in his deathless lay."[41]

the poem opens with a description of the ancient city of ayodhya (oude), beautifully situated on the banks of a river and ruled by a childless rajah.

in by-gone ages built and planned

by sainted manu's princely hand,

imperial seat! her walls extend

twelve measured leagues from end to end;

three in width, from side to side

with square and palace beautified.

her gates at even distance stand,

her ample roads are wisely planned.

right glorious is her royal street,

where streams allay her dust and heat.

on level ground in even row

her houses rise in goodly show.

terrace and palace, arch and gate

the queenly city decorate.

high are her ramparts, strong and vast,

by ways at even distance passed,

with circling moat both deep and wide,

and store of weapons fortified.

this monarch (dasaratha), a descendant of the moon, was sixty thousand years old when the story begins. although his reign had already extended over a period of nine thousand years,—during which his people had enjoyed such prosperity that it is known as the age of gold,—the king, still childless in spite of having seven hundred and fifty concubines, decided to offer a great horse sacrifice (asvatmedha) in hopes of obtaining a son, to celebrate his funeral rites and thereby enable him to enter heaven.

in order to perform the ceremony properly, a horse had to be turned out to wander at will for a year, constantly watched by a band of priests, who prevented any one laying a hand upon him, for, once touched, the animal was unfit to be offered up to the gods. this horse sacrifice having been duly performed, the happy rajah was informed by the gods that four sons would uphold his line, provided he and three of his wives quaffed the magic drink they gave him.

having thus granted the rajah's prayer, the lesser gods implored their chief indra to rid them of the demons sent by ravana, the satan of the hindus. this evil spirit, by standing on his head in the midst of five fires ten thousand years in succession, had secured from brahma a promise that no god, demon, or genius should slay him. by this extraordinary feat he had also obtained nine extra heads with a full complement of eyes, ears, and noses, hands and arms. mindful of his promise, brahma was at a loss to grant this request until he remembered he had never guaranteed ravana should not be attacked by man or monkey. he, therefore, decided to beg vishnu to enter the body of a man and conquer this terrible foe, while the lesser gods helped him in the guise of monkeys.

"one only way i find

to slay this fiend of evil mind.

he prayed me once his life to guard

from demon, god, and heavenly bard,

and spirits of the earth and air,

and i, consenting, heard his prayer.

but the proud giant in his scorn

recked not of man of woman born;

none else may take his life away

and only man the fiend can slay."

at brahma's request, vishnu not only consented to become man, but elected to enter the body of the rajah's oldest son—one of the four children obtained in answer to prayer. meantime he charged his fellow gods diligently to beget helpers for him, so they proceeded to produce innumerable monkeys. the poem next informs us that rama, son of the rajah's favorite wife, being a god,—an incarnation of vishnu,—came into the world with jewelled crown and brandishing four arms, but that, at his parents' request, he concealed these divine attributes, assumed a purely human form, and cried lustily like a babe. two other wives of the rajah, having received lesser portions of the divine beverage, gave birth to three sons (bharata, lakshmana, and satrughna), and the news that four heirs had arrived in the palace caused great rejoicings in the realm.

these four princes grew up in the most promising fashion, rama in particular developing every virtue, and showing even in childhood marked ability as an archer. such was his proficiency in athletic sports that a hermit besought him, at sixteen, to rid his forest of the demons which were making life miserable for him and his kin. to enable rama to triumph over these foes, the hermit bestowed upon him divine weapons, assuring him they would never fail him.

"and armed with these, beyond a doubt,

shall rama put those fiends to rout."

the hermit also beguiled the weariness of their long journey to the forest by relating to rama the story of the ganges, the sacred stream of india. we are told that a virtuous king, being childless, betook himself to the himalayas, where, after spending a hundred years in austerities, brahma announced he should have one son by one of his wives and sixty thousand by the other, adding that his consorts might choose whether to bear one offspring or many. given the first choice, the favorite wife elected to be the mother of the son destined to continue the royal race, while the other brought into the world a gourd, wherein a hermit discovered the germs of sixty thousand brave sons, all of whom, thanks to his care, grew up to perform wonders in behalf of their father and brother.

on one occasion, a horse chosen for sacrifice having been stolen, the father despatched these sixty thousand braves in quest of it, and, as they were not able to discover any traces of it on earth, bade them dig down to hell. not only did they obey, but continued their search until they struck in turn the four elephants on whose backs the hindus claim our earth peacefully reposes. here the diggers disturbed the meditations of some god, who, in his anger, burned them up. the poor father, anxious to purify the ashes of his dead sons, learned he would never be able to do so until the ganges—a river of heaven—was brought down to earth. by dint of penance and prayer, the bereaved parent induced vishnu to permit this stream—which until then had only flowed in heaven—to descend to earth, warning the king that the river, in coming down, would destroy the world unless some means were found to stem the force of its current. our clever rajah obviated this difficulty by persuading the god siva to receive the cataract on the top of his head, where the sacred waters, after threading their way through his thick locks, were divided into the seven streams which feed the sacred springs of india. thus safely brought to earth, the ganges penetrated to hell, where it purified the ashes of the sixty thousand martyrs, and ever since then its waters have been supposed to possess miraculous powers.

for sin and stain were banished thence,

by the sweet river's influence.

the hermit also told how the gods procured the water of life (amrita) by churning the ocean, saying they used mount meru as a dasher, and a huge serpent as the rope whereby to twirl it around.

led by this hermit, rama not only slew the ravaging monsters, but went on to take part in a tournament, where king janak offered his daughter, sita, in marriage to any archer who would span a bow he had obtained from siva. on arriving at the place where this test was to be made, rama saw the huge bow brought forth on a chariot drawn by five thousand men, and, although no one else had even been able to raise it, took it up and bent it until it broke with a crack which terrified all present. by this feat young rama won the hand of sita, a beautiful princess, whom her father turned up from the soil while ploughing one day, and who is hence the hindu personification of spring.

the wedding of rama and sita was honored by the presence of both kings, and rama's three brothers were made as happy as he by receiving the hands of three of sita's sisters, the father telling each bridegroom:

"a faithful wife, most blest is she,

and as thy shade will follow thee."

when the four bridal couples returned to oude, rama's father decided to name his eldest son assistant king, and therefore gave orders to prepare for the ceremony. the mere rumor that rama was about to be crowned aroused the jealousy of the king's youngest wife (kaikeyi), who, instigated by an evil-minded, hunch-backed maid, sent for her aged spouse and reminded him how once, when he was ill, he had promised in return for her care to grant any two boons she asked. the infatuated monarch, seeing her grief, rashly renewed this promise, swearing to keep it by rama's head.

as some wild elephant who tries

to soothe his consort as she lies

struck by the hunter's venomed dart,

so the great king, disturbed in heart,

strove with soft hand and fond caress

to soothe his darling queen's distress,

and in his love addressed with sighs

the lady of the lotus eyes.

hearing him confirm his former oath, the favorite wife bade him banish his heir to the forest for fourteen years and appoint her son as viceroy in his brother's stead. in vain the old king pleaded; the favorite wife insisted so vehemently that when morning dawned the bewildered old rajah sent for rama to ask his advice. although this prince fully expected to be crowned that day, he was far too virtuous not to perceive that a promise must be kept at any cost, so without a murmur he prepared to go to the forest of dandaka and dwell there in hermit garb fourteen years.

"the orders of my sire," he cried,

"my will shall ne'er oppose:

i follow still, whate'er betide,

the path which duty shows."

his first duty, however, was to return to his palace to inform his wife that they must part; but, on hearing what had occurred, sita piteously begged to share his fate, although he eloquently described the hardships to which she would be exposed should she venture to accompany him. her wifely devotion was, however, proof against all he could urge, for she declared with tears there was no happiness for her save at his side.

"with thee is heaven, where'er the spot;

each place is hell where thou are not."

hearing this declaration, rama finally consented to take her with him, and, bidding farewell to father and mother, left the city, accompanied by his wife and favorite brother (lakshman) and escorted by his mourning subjects.

his father, broken-hearted at parting with his favorite son, took to his bed, which he was never to leave again confiding to rama's mother that he was being sorely punished for a sin of his youth. it seems that, while out hunting one night, hearing a gurgle by a stream, and fancying some wild beast was there drinking, he let fly a shaft, which only too surely reached its goal. startled by a human cry, the rajah rushed down to the river, only to discover that he had mortally wounded a youth who had come down to draw water for his blind parents.

"then in the dusk i heard the sound of gurgling water;

quickly i took my bow, and, aiming toward the sound, shot off the dart.

a cry of mortal agony came from the spot,—a human voice

was heard, and a poor hermit's son fell pierced and bleeding in

the stream."

before dying this lad implored his slayer to hasten back to the hermitage with water, as the old people were longing for a drink. on hearing footsteps, the blind parents peevishly reproached their son for tarrying, and, when the unfortunate murderer tried to explain what had occurred, cursed him vehemently, declaring he would some day experience the loss of a son. it was, therefore, in fulfilment of this curse that the old rajah died thirteen days after rama's departure.

meantime the banished prince, riding in one of his father's chariots, had reached the junction of the jumna and ganges, where he spent the first night of his exile beneath a banyan on the banks of the sacred stream. there he built a raft, by means of which he crossed to the other side, and from there sadly watched his faithful subjects wending homeward. then he plunged into the forest, arranging that sita should always tread its narrow paths between him and his brother, to make sure no harm befall her.

the indian poet now favors us with a wonderful description of the tropical forest, with its huge trees, brilliant flowers, strange birds and monkeys, all of which gives the reader a vivid impression of the color, beauty, perfume, and luxuriance of the tropics.

on rocky heights beside the way

and lofty trees with blossoms gay;

and streamlets running fair and fast,

the royal youths and sita passed.

the exiles, wandering thus in single file, finally arrived at citra-kuta, where they joined a colony of hermits and built a rustic booth, where they dwelt happily for some time. one day the rumor of a coming host roused their curiosity, and lakshman, descrying a long procession from the top of a high tree, excitedly warned rama that his brother was probably coming to annihilate them.

rama, who always ascribes good motives to every one, now declares it is impossible this should be true, and feels sure his brother is coming for some affectionate purpose. greeting bharata kindly, therefore, he soon discovers his previsions are correct, for the young prince, after announcing his father's death, implores rama to return and reign over oude. not only does he protest he will never supplant his senior, but reviles his mother for having compelled her husband to drive rama into exile.

although all present unite in his entreaties, rama, too virtuous to break a promise, decides to remain in the forest the allotted fourteen years and resume his regal state only at the end of that time. he adds that during his banishment he will live in such a fashion that his exile will prove a blessing to his people.

"many a blessing yet will spring

from banished rama's wanderings."

this decided, rama urges his brother to act meanwhile as vice-regent; whereupon bharata, taking rama's golden sandals, proclaims they alone shall occupy the throne beneath the royal umbrella, although he consents to rule in his brother's name. this settled, the gorgeous procession slowly wends its way back to oude, where for fourteen years every one does homage to rama's golden sandals!

meantime life in the hermitage continues its peaceful course, the royal ascetics being disturbed only by the demons (rakshasas) who haunt the forest and try to injure the hermits, simply because they are good. sita is perfectly happy in this humble home because she enjoys the constant presence of her husband, who, taking her one day to visit an aged female ascetic, implores this woman to bestow a boon upon his faithful spouse. the old woman then and there endowed sita with eternal youth and beauty, declaring that no matter what hardships she encounters, she will always be as dainty and young as at present.

one of the female demons finally becomes so anxious to win rama's love, that she disguises herself as a beautiful creature in hopes of fascinating him. angry because all her efforts fail, she next tries to injure sita, whereupon rama, by cutting off her nose and ears, forces her to resume her usual shape. in her anger this demon bids her brothers avenge her wrongs, whereupon fourteen fiends attack rama, who, having slain them all, is almost immediately afterward forced to face thousands of demons. he defeats them single-handed, while his brother watches over sita, hidden in a neighboring cave.

such a trifle as the massacre of twenty-one thousand of his fiends in three hours' time, naturally enrages ravana, whose abode is in ceylon, in a golden palace which has such high walls that no one can peep over them. this king of demons, who is also called the "courage of the three worlds," has the power of increasing his stature until he can reach up to the stars with his score of arms. owing to his ten heads, his appearance is terrifying, especially as his eyebrows are composed of live black snakes which writhe around continually. no sooner does his sister appear before him, reporting she has been mutilated by rama, who has besides slain hosts of his subjects, than ravana swears revenge, adding he will first kidnap sita, for his sister's description of her matchless charms has fired his imagination.

in his golden chariot ravana, therefore, flies to the forest, where he bids his sister change herself into a wonderful deer, and in that shape lure rama away, so he can abduct sita. the three hermits are, therefore, calmly seated before their hut when a deer darts past, exhibiting so unusual a pelt that sita, fired with the desire to possess it, urges rama to pursue it. to gratify this whim, rama starts out to track this game, calling to his brother to mount guard over his wife during his absence. lured farther and farther away from home, rama finally brings down his quarry, which, in falling, calls for help in a voice so exactly like his own that his brother, hearing the despairing accent, is torn between the desire to rush to his rescue and the necessity of remaining to protect sita. but the little wife, sure her husband is in danger, so vehemently urges her brother-in-law to leave her that he finally dashes off. a moment later sita sees an old hermit draw near to ask alms. while she is entertaining this holy guest, he frightens her by suddenly announcing that he is ravana, king of the demons. as sita resists all his advances, ravana, suddenly resuming his wonted shape, snatches her up in his arms and whisks her off in his flying chariot. notwithstanding the rapidity of his course, the king of the vultures, seeing them dart through the air and hoping to rescue the frantic sita, attacks ravana, only to fall mortally wounded to earth. because sita—the personification of vegetation—has now been abducted by the demon,—who typifies winter,—the whole earth shows signs of mourning, and the two brothers hurry back to the hut, their hearts filled with nameless apprehensions.

like streamlet in the winter frost,

the glory of her lilies lost.

with leafy tears the sad trees wept

as a wild wind their branches swept.

mourned bird and deer; and every flower

drooped fainting round the lovely bower.

the sylvan deities had fled

the spot where all the light was dead.

reaching their hermitage and finding their worst fears justified, both brothers set out in quest of sita, and soon come across the dying vulture, who reports what he has seen, and bids them, after burning his body, find the monkey king, sugriva, who will aid them. after piously fulfilling the brave vulture's last wishes, rama and his brother visit the monkey monarch, who reports that, as the demon flew over his head, sita flung down a few of her ornaments, begging that they be taken to rama. an alliance is now concluded between rama and sugriva, and, as each party pledges himself to help the other, rama begins by slaying the brother and chief foe of the monkey king, who in his turn undertakes to trace sita.

to discover where she may be, hanuman, the monkey general, sets out, and, following sita's traces, discovers she has been carried to ceylon. but, on arriving at the southern point of the indian peninsula and finding some two hundred miles of water between him and this island, hanuman, son of the god of the winds, transforms himself into a huge ape, and in that shape takes a flying leap from the top of mount mandara (the fabled centre of the earth) to the top of mount sabula, which overlooks the capital of ceylon. then, reconnoitring from this point, the monkey general perceives that ravana's palace is so closely guarded that he can only steal into it in the guise of a cat. prowling through the royal premises, he searches for sita until he finally discovers her in a secluded garden, bitterly mourning for her spouse.

in spite of the fact that she has already been some time in the demon's power, ravana has not yet succeeded in winning her affections, and dares not force her lest he incur the wrath of the gods. it is evident, however, that his patience is worn nearly threadbare, for hanuman overhears him threaten to chop sita to pieces unless she will yield to his wishes and become his wife within the next two months.

"my cooks shall mince thy limbs with steel

and serve thee for my morning meal."

when sita is left alone, hanuman, in the guise of a tiny monkey, climbs down to her side, exhibits rama's ring, which he has brought as a token, and receives from her in return a jewel, after he has assured her that she will soon be delivered.

about to leave ceylon to report what he has seen, it occurs to the monkey general to do some damage to the foe. in the guise of an immense baboon, he therefore destroys a grove of mango trees, an act of vandalism which so infuriates ravana that he orders the miscreant seized and fire tied to his tail! but no sooner has the fire been set than the monkey general, suddenly transforming himself into a tiny ape, slips out of his bonds, and scrambling up on the palace roof sets it on fire as well as all the houses in lanka, his flaming tail serving as a torch.

as earth with fervent heat will glow

when comes her final overthrow;

from gate to gate, from court to spire,

proud lanka was one blaze of fire,

and every headland, rock, and bay

shone bright a hundred leagues away!

then, satisfied with the damage he has done, hanuman hastens back to the sea-shore, whence by another prodigious leap he lands in india, to inform rama and sugriva (the monkey king) of the success of his expedition.

a huge monkey army now sets out under rama's guidance, but general and warriors are equally dismayed on reaching the sea to find an unsurmountable obstacle between them and their goal. in answer to rama's fervent prayers, however, the god of the sea, rising from the waves, promises that any materials cast into his waters will be held in place, to form a bridge whereby they can cross to ceylon. all the monkeys now bring stones and tree trunks which they hurl into the sea, where, thanks to the efforts of the hindu architect nala, they are welded together and form a magic bridge. it is by means of this causeway that rama invades ceylon, and, when ravana hears the foe is approaching, he musters an army, of which the poem gives a wonderful description. then begins the dire combat wherein rama and his forces finally prove victorious, and wherein our hero, after slaying ravana's son, fights with the demon himself, whose heads he proceeds to cut off. he is justly dismayed, however, to see they have the power of springing up again as soon as hewn, until remembering at last his magic bow, he makes such good use of it that he annihilates the demon, whose numerous wives wail as he falls.

although many of rama's adherents have perished in battle, he now proceeds to call them back to life, and graciously receives the praise they bestow upon him for having rid the world of demons.

soft from celestial minstrels came

the sound of music and acclaim;

soft, fresh and cool, a rising breeze

brought odors from the heavenly trees;

and, ravishing the sight and smell,

a wondrous rain of blossoms fell;

and voices breathed round reghu's son,

"champion of gods, well done, well done."

it is only then that rama consents to see sita, who, thanks to her gift of eternal beauty, is still so lovely that all present are awed. but, instead of embracing her, rama coldly declares that, although he crossed the seas for her sake and slew her foes, she is no longer worthy to dwell in his sight since she has been an inmate of ravana's harem. in vain sita urges that she has been faithful throughout. rama refuses to credit her purity; so the poor little wife, preferring death to disgrace, begs permission to die on a funeral pyre. even then her stern husband shows no signs of relenting, but allows her to enter a fierce fire, whence the god of the flames bears her out unharmed, and restores her to her husband, declaring that, as her chastity has withstood this fiery test, he can receive her without compunction.

she ceased and, fearless to the last,

within the flames' wild fury passed.

by this time the prescribed fourteen years of exile are finished, so husband and wife set out for home, crossing the ocean bridge in ravana's magic car, and flying all over india, of which the poet gives a wonderful panoramic description. rama's return to oude is joyfully welcomed by his brother, who proudly shows him the golden sandals which have occupied the throne all this time.

rama's reign proves an age of gold for india, but, although all seem happy, some doubt lingers in regard to the propriety of sita's return. when a famine finally devastates the land, one of the ministers assures rama this scourge is due to the fact that he has taken back a guilty wife. rama, therefore, banishes the faithful sita, who returns to the forest and to the protection of the hermits, where she gives birth to twin sons, kusa and lava, the destined singers of válmikí's wonderful song. these youths are, however, brought up in the forest in total ignorance of their august descent.

twenty years have passed since rama repudiated his wife, when he decides to offer a horse sacrifice. but, the steed he selects having been captured by two young men, rama angrily orders them put to death. as the victims resist all efforts to seize them, the king in person goes forth to capture them. on approaching near enough, he haughtily demands their names and origin, whereupon the youths rejoin their mother is sita and their tutor válmikí, but that they do not know their father's name. these words reveal to rama that he is face to face with his own sons, but, although he rejoices, he still finds it difficult to believe sita can have been faithful. he, therefore, avers that before reinstating her she will have to undergo a second trial by fire; but sita, who no longer feels any desire to belong to so heartless a spouse, flatly refuses to accompany him, until válmikí informs her it is a wife's duty to obey.

still wearing the crown of eternal youth and beauty, sita now appears before rama, in whose presence she implores the earth to open and receive her, thus proving that she has ever been true to her marriage vows and saving her from further suffering. a moment later the king and his court see the earth heave and open, and behold the goddess of the earth, who, taking sita by the hand, announces she is about to convey her to realms of eternal bliss. then sita and the goddess disappear, the earth closes once more, and the gods chant the praises of the faithful wife, showering flowers upon rama, who grovels on the ground in his agony. a broken-hearted man, he then returns to his palace with his two sons, the first to sing this poem, whose verses are so sacred that those who listen to a few of them are forgiven many sins, while those who hear the whole epic are sure to achieve paradise.

he shall be

from every sin and blemish free:

whoever reads the saving strain,

with all his kin the heavens shall gain.

because the poem is so sacred, its author enjoined upon the youths to recite it often, a task they faithfully performed as long as they lived, and which other bards have continued until to-day in all parts of india.

recite ye this heroic song

in tranquil shades where sages throng;

recite it where the good resort,

in lowly home and royal court.

we are told besides that—

as long as mountain ranges stand

and rivers flow upon the earth,

so long will this ramayana

survive upon the lips of men.

rama is finally visited by the god of time, who offers him the choice of remaining on earth or returning to heaven. when he wisely choses the latter alternative, rama is bidden bathe in sacred waters, and thence is translated to the better world.

from this poem tulsi das has composed a play known as the "ram charit manas," which serves as bible to a hundred million worshippers in northern india, and is always played at the yearly festivals in the presence of countless admirers.