it was a seven years’ holy war which the americans were obliged to wage. dark times were still to follow, times in which, even among the best men, the belief in a successful outcome was shaken. in regard to military organization and discipline there was still much to be desired, for the measure of it which had been successfully introduced by baron steuben had not immediately permeated the whole army. indeed the whole military body was as yet only in process of formation and at the same time the situation was such that unprecedented feats of endurance had to be required of the soldiers. they were very badly off in the matter of arms and other necessaries. often even proper food was wanting. clothing and weapons were scarce. congress had been obliged to resort to the introduction of paper money, which was copied in england, sent over in quantities, and by this means reduced in value. as the enemy commanded the seas and occupied first one part of the country, then another, taking possession relentlessly of whatever they wanted, trade and commerce were extinguished and misery and want were prevalent among the inhabitants. what would have happened had the country not possessed in washington a commander whose example was always an inspiration to others and whose words of wisdom always appealed to hearts and heads! in war the soldier is readily inclined, especially when he is in need, to take possession of whatever seems necessary or desirable by force. we read of wars in which the peaceable inhabitants suffer equally from friend and foe in this respect. even congress closed an eye when it became known that parts of the american army had taken forcible possession of provisions. not so the commander-in-chief. in this matter also he strove for the just and the right course. he urged congress to regulate the supplies for the army and showed the unfortunate consequences which must ensue if it became their custom to take possession of the necessaries of life by force. “such a proceeding,” he says, in one of his letters, “must, even though it should afford temporary relief, have the most disastrous consequences eventually. it spreads discontent, hatred, and fear amongst the people, and never fails, even among the best disciplined troops, to fan the flame of degeneracy, plunder, and robbery, which is later hard to subdue; and these habits become ruinous, not only to the populace, but especially to the army. i shall consider it as the greatest of misfortunes if we are reduced to the necessity of adopting such methods.” in spite of all this the general was continually the victim of slanders. foolish people misunderstood him, ambitious ones strove to procure his position. like general lee, earlier in the war, general gates now schemed to supersede the commander-in-chief. in some parts of the army there were mutinies. to congress, which demanded relentless punishment, washington said: “one must consider that the soldiers are not made of stone or wood, invulnerable to hunger and thirst, frost and snow.” it sometimes happened that the roads were marked with the bloody footprints of the soldiers, who were mostly without shoes even in winter! but at the same time he appealed to the soldiers, explained to them with urgent words the situation of their country, the dignity of their profession, and the demands which the country had a right to make on them. among other things he said: “our profession is the most chaste of any; even the shadow of a fault sullies the purity of our praiseworthy deeds.” while appealing thus to the better elements in human nature, he had the satisfaction of seeing that his procedure was meeting with success. the iron hand of severity and its attendant horrors he kept for the most extreme cases, but in these he let the military laws take their course inexorably. mutineers were sometimes shot and spies were delivered up to the rope.
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in the fall of 1777 the fortunes of war were twice in quick succession favorable to the british in the battles of the brandywine and germantown. a second british army under burgoyne was to advance from canada. washington had sent a division to meet him under gates and arnold. an engagement took place which was undecided, but soon afterward, at saratoga, the british general was obliged to capitulate and congress was notified that: “this fortunate day’s work has given us six generals and five thousand soldiers, five thousand guns and twenty-seven cannon, with their ammunition. during the campaign we have, besides, taken two thousand prisoners, among them several of the higher officers.”
this success ripened a project which had been under consideration for a long time: an alliance with france. it was not love of the newly constructed nation that induced the french government to declare herself openly as an ally of america, but hatred of england, whom she wished to weaken as much as possible. joy was great among the american people over the conclusion of the alliance. however, comparatively little was done by france, who, moreover, intended to reimburse herself, for the assistance rendered, by acquiring lands. the americans, after all, had to rely principally on their own exertions and resources. as england now had two enemies to contend with, she redoubled her efforts with great vigor. general howe, who for years had been boasting and had so often announced that in a short time the rebels would be completely routed, but had never reached this goal, was recalled and replaced by general clinton. to a greater extent than had ever been done before, the indian tribes of the iroquois and creeks were urged by british agents to undertake marauding expeditions in the american settlements. they even offered themselves as leaders of these murderous bands. they spread fire and murder through the american colonies to the full extent of their power. the consequence was a campaign in which the colonists sought to revenge themselves. but this was not the only result. the resistance of the americans was inflamed by the fact that the british had let loose these bands of savages, who practised many unheard-of cruelties even against women and girls. patriotism had been awakened in the breasts of the women, and a youth or man who did not show himself ready to serve his country was now looked upon with scorn.
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there were many battles in which first one side, then the other, gained the advantage. at last, through clever generalship, washington, who had the french troops also under his command, was successful in shutting up general cornwallis in yorktown. having had several successes the british general had become too daring and had ventured too far to the front. by means of counter marches washington managed to conceal his intentions from general clinton very successfully. cornwallis’ cry for help reached the british commander too late: “i cannot hold yorktown for any length of time. if you cannot relieve me, you may expect the worst.” the engagement was opened with the combined forces and soon afterward, october 19, 1781, cornwallis capitulated. nearly eight thousand of the british were taken captive and two hundred cannon were seized. not a prisoner was harmed, although it was well known that a short time before this american prisoners had been murdered by the british.
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everywhere the conviction spread that american independence was assured! lafayette, who had greatly distinguished himself in leading a storming column, wrote to count maurepas: “the piece is played out, the fifth act is just ended.” on receiving the news, franklin said: “hearty thanks for the glorious news. the young hercules has strangled his second serpent in the cradle!” in england also it was recognized more and more that “the colonies cannot again be brought under our dominion!” a new ministry took the reins, negotiations were begun, and at last, on september 3, 1783, peace was formally declared between great britain and the american republic, whose independence was thereby recognized.
