we have seen how theodora rewarded the friends, and must now see how she punished the enemies, of her earlier career. it will be remembered that her father had been a servant of the “greens” of the hippodrome, but that this party had greeted her mother with derision when she appealed for sympathy with her three children, while the “blues” received them compassionately. twenty years afterwards the young circus-girl had become the most powerful woman in the world, and the blues began to tyrannize with impunity over their rivals. in the earliest years of the reign of theodora and justinian we find them swollen with conceit and encouraged in the perpetration of every kind of disorder. the livelier “sparks” of that faction advertised their formidable character by adopting the trousers and sandals of the fierce huns and trimming their hair after the fashion of those terrible invaders; they wore long moustaches and beards, shaved the front part of the head, and cultivated long hair at the back.
a few outrages soon taught them that the laws would not be enforced against them, and before long the city of constantinople became, during the night, a land of terror. the citizen who dared to pass along the streets with a gold clasp to his belt or his cloak or money in his purse was robbed, and women could not move after nightfall. the continued silence of the authorities encouraged the blues, and drew all the dissolute elements of the city into their ranks. they now began to force37 the doors of the houses, plunder the coffers, rape the wives and daughters, and carry off the more handsome slaves and boys. at the least resistance their deadly poniards were drawn, and murder became frequent. when the authorities intervened, none but the greens were punished. the evil rapidly spread from night to day, and from the metropolis to other cities. it would be futile in this case to quarrel with the details given in the “anecdotes.” the great riot into which the greens were stung by this reign of terror is an historical fact; and nothing but the vindictive memory of theodora can explain how justinian, the great legislator, permitted so appalling a disorder.
theodora meantime enjoyed the conversation of her monks and hermits, and even justinian seems to have been unconscious that he was slipping the leash of beasts whom he might be powerless to control. at length, on 14th january 532, the greens stirred. the emperor appeared in his kathisma at the hippodrome, and an appeal was made to him for justice. his officer replied disdainfully, and a long and curious conversation took place.9 the emperor still refused to grant the impartial administration of justice or to punish the murderers, and the greens left the hippodrome. they gathered in strength in the streets, and, although justinian prudently sent to learn and partly to remove their grievances, they remained in arms. belisarius was now sent against them with a troop of goths, and the rioting and burning began. unfortunately for the court an accident then happened which had the singular effect of uniting the two factions against the troops. seven criminals were to be executed, and procopius cannot conceal the fact—in spite of his insistence that the blues were never38 punished—that some of the seven were blues and some greens. after five of the seven had been despatched, the rope broke, and the crowd demanded the acquittal of the remaining two. the authorities refused, and, as one criminal was a blue and the other a green, the factions turned in common anger upon the prefect and the troops.
the terrible riot that followed during four days must be read in history. the first part of the palace, the great church of st sophia, and many other churches, mansions and public buildings were destroyed. priests who rushed into the fray holding aloft the disarming emblems of their faith were cut down. on the fourth day, a sunday, justinian entered the hippodrome with a bible in his hand, and took a solemn oath to spare the offenders if they would disarm. “ass, thou art perjuring thyself,” was the infuriated answer; and he retired to contemplate with theodora the impending ruin of their reign. on the following day the crowd forced hypatius, nephew of the emperor anastasius, to accept such purple robes as they could obtain, marched with him in triumph to the hippodrome, and exulted in the downfall of justinian and theodora, who were believed to have fled to asia.
the “great” justinian makes a lamentable appearance throughout the whole riot, which he had guiltily occasioned, but theodora and the abler ministers were not minded to yield. as they gathered in the hall of the palace, to which the cries in the hippodrome must almost have penetrated, the chief eunuch narses came to report that by a judicious distribution of money he had distracted the factions and weakened the cause of hypatius. it is probably this news that turned the scale in the wavering counsels of justinian and his ministers, but it was theodora who pressed it home. the speech which procopius assigns to her is worth reproducing, though we cannot regard it as more than a rhetorical paraphrase of the words she used:
39
“in my opinion this is no time to admit the maxim that a woman must not act as a man among men; nor, if she fires the courage of the halting, are we to consider whether she does right or no. when matters come to a crisis, we must agree as to the best course to take. my opinion is that, although we may save ourselves by flight, it is not to our interest. every man that sees the light must die, but the man who has once been raised to the height of empire cannot suffer himself to go into exile and survive his dignity. god forbid that i should ever be seen stripped of this purple, or live a single day on which i am not to be saluted as mistress. if thou desirest to go, emperor, nothing prevents thee. there is the sea; there are the steps to the boats. but have a care that when thou leavest here, thou dost not exchange this sweet light for an ignoble death. for my part i like the old saying: empire is a fine winding-sheet.”
some such sentiments, we may believe, were urged by theodora, and affected the decision. the populace was penned in the hippodrome, and justinian’s officers and troops stealthily surrounded it. rushing in at the various entrances, they fell with such fury upon the people that the sun went down on the corpses of between thirty and forty thousand citizens heaped in its arena or on the terraced seats.
the health of theodora suffered from the strain of this terrible week, and she went to take the waters at the pythian baths in bithynia: a crowd of nobles and four thousand soldiers and eunuchs forming her retinue. meantime justinian set about the congenial task of re-erecting the chalke (or front part of the palace), the church of st sophia and the other ruined buildings, on a more splendid scale than before. we shall see later by what means he and his empress obtained the prodigious sums of money they needed for their enormous expenditure. we will also postpone for a moment the40 early relations of theodora to the general belisarius and his romantic spouse, and consider the next important episode in which her character is seen.
in spite of the orthodoxy and religious zeal of justinian, his wife had such influence over him and apart from him that in the year 535 she secured the see of constantinople for the monophysite anthimus, to the unbounded delight of her sect and amidst the furious maledictions of the orthodox throughout the empire. rome was at that time regarded only as a sister church of great authority and antiquity, but its venerable bishop agapetus was summoned to the eastern metropolis and he succeeded in ousting theodora’s favourite. agapetus, however, died soon afterwards at constantinople, and theodora now conceived the bold design of putting a monophysite pope upon the throne at rome itself. for the remarkable events which follow i am not using the “anecdotes” at all. the story is told in substance by a contemporary ecclesiastical writer, liberatus the deacon, of carthage, and the chronicler victor, and is repeated, with large and legendary additions, by anastasius, the roman librarian, of the ninth century.
in the suite of agapetus at constantinople was an ambitious and courtly deacon named vigilius, who contrived to let his accommodating temper become known to the empress. he was taken to her apartments, and he promised, if the roman see and a large sum of money were bestowed on him, to reinstate anthimus and the other monophysite bishops. in the meantime the gothic ruler of italy had appointed a certain silverius to the roman see. theodora tested him with a request that he would restore anthimus, but he refused; murmuring, it is said, as he wrote the letter: “this will cost me my life,” as it did. the byzantine general belisarius had meantime taken and occupied rome, and a few words must be said to introduce him, and his wife antonina, into the story of theodora.
the empress theodora and her attendants
mosaic of the 6th century in s. vitale, ravenna
41 i have previously mentioned an eleventh-century legend concerning belisarius and justinian and their wives. it was said that the two men had one day entered a house of ill-fame, found there two captive and fascinating amazons named antonia [theodora] and antonina, and married them. the myth seems to have crystallized about a belief that antonina had risen from the same depths as theodora, as the “anecdotes” say, and the fact that antonina was a woman of abandoned character and a leading lady in the service of the empress seems to confirm this. in any case, she is openly assailed by procopius (her husband’s secretary) in his historical works as “capable of anything,” and is described in the lexicon of suidas as “an infamous adulteress.” she had married belisarius, and accompanied him in 533 on his brilliant campaign for the recovery of africa from the vandals. with them went a handsome and foppish thracian youth named theodosius. he was fresh from the baptismal font, in which the patriarch had washed away his monophysite heresy, and it was believed that the presence of so sacred a youth would bring luck to the fleet. before they reached carthage antonina enjoyed the secret love of the youth, but a servant betrayed them, and theodosius fled to ephesus, where we must leave him for a time. it is said that antonina had the servant’s tongue cut out.
belisarius passed from the subjugation of north africa to a victorious war in italy, and he and antonina were staying at a palace on the pincian hill at rome when the deacon vigilius—now, no doubt, a priest—came with the commands of theodora. “trump up a charge against silverius, and send him to constantinople,” the order ran, according to the roman librarian, and as the more authoritative liberatus affirms that the charge was false, and was supported by mendacious witnesses and forged letters, there is no possibility of freeing theodora from this grave imputation. the pope was summoned to the palace, where antonina lay on a couch with belisarius42 at her feet. antonina at once charged him with treasonable correspondence with the goths. we may or may not believe the picturesque version of anastasius: that the servants at once stripped the pope of his robes, dressed him as a monk, and interred him in a distant monastery. it is certain, at least, that silverius was, at theodora’s command, deposed on a false charge and thrust out of sight. vigilius became pope, and the fate of silverius is unknown to history.
i cannot entirely omit a later sequel to this sacrilegious and unscrupulous deed, though it rests only on the feebler authority of anastasius. for a few years theodora demanded in vain that vigilius should fulfil his promise. he had, he said, come to see the heinousness of such a promise, and could not discharge it. in 544, therefore, theodora sent an officer to rome with a command which anastasius gives in these words: “if you find him in the church of st peter spare him, but if in the lateran or the palace, or in any other church, put him on ship at once, and bring him to us. if you fail, i will, by him that liveth for ever, have your skin torn from your body.” it is known, at least, that vigilius was shipped away from rome at the end of 544; but that he was at once taken to constantinople, and that theodora had him dragged through the streets like a bear, is untrue. he reached constantinople after her death. we cannot therefore follow the deposition of vigilius as confidently as we follow the sordid story of his elevation, but we can have little doubt that theodora punished him.
another authentic episode of the time reveals the same unscrupulous disdain of principles in the patroness of the monophysite sect. the story is told by procopius, not in the “anecdotes,” but in his open and authoritative work “on the persian war,” in spite of his usual extreme care to suppress offensive details. the prefect of constantinople, john of cappadocia, had incurred the bitter hostility of the empress. the very43 unattractive portrait which procopius supplies, and gibbon reproduces, of john prevents us from thinking that in this case an innocent man was persecuted. while he freely promoted all the schemes of justinian and his notorious steward to wring money out of the citizens—“by fair means and foul,” as zonaras says—he levied his private tithe on all their gains, and was popularly believed to indulge in secret the most sensual tastes and the even worse abominations of some pagan cult. he seems to have been the one man to regard theodora with open disdain, and she retorted with venomous hate. although guards surrounded his bedroom, he started every hour from his feverish slumbers to look for the expected assassin.
his value to justinian enabled him to keep his position until the year 540, when belisarius and antonina returned from italy to constantinople.10 antonina remained in the city while her husband went against the persians. she feverishly summoned her thracian lover from the monastery in which he hypocritically lingered at ephesus, but the wrath of belisarius held him aloof. whether or no antonina then deliberately sought the intervention of the empress, we cannot say, but she proceeded to merit it. she learned of theodora’s hatred of john, and conceived a plot for his destruction.
john had an ingenuous and amiable daughter who seems to have been not unacquainted with the political situation. twice had the brilliant belisarius been withdrawn to the city in a fit of jealousy, and there were rumours that the strong man was wearying of serving an emperor who could do nothing but employ others and reap their glory. antonina won her way to the heart and confidence of the girl, and betrayed to her that44 her husband was secretly disaffected. the artless euphemia hastened to tell her father that there was a prospect of overthrowing theodora, whom they both hated. even john was deceived by the astute adventuress. it was arranged that antonina should go to her suburban palace and meet john there during the night. we do not know that theodora had a share in framing this diabolical plot, but it was now communicated to her by antonina, and she at once pressed it and used her resources for carrying it out with safety. in the dead of the following night john entered the palace of the unscrupulous adventuress and listened to her whispers of treachery. procopius says that theodora had initiated the emperor to the plot, and he had consented, but at the last moment sent a messenger to john not to see antonina. this seems to be a piece of polite fiction in the interest of the emperor; it is incredible that an astute and experienced minister would risk his neck after such a message. john went, and, in the apparently lonely palace, spoke his secret sympathy with the supposed design of belisarius. no sooner had he uttered the words than a troop of imperial guards entered the room to arrest or assassinate him, but john also had brought soldiers and they enabled him to escape.
had john gone straight to the palace of justinian, he might still have saved his position. instead, he fled nervously to the sanctuary, and theodora hardened the mind of her husband. the wealthy and powerful noble was stripped of his estates and forced to enter the ranks of the clergy—one of the quaintest penalties of the time—in the suburb of cyzicus. there the people whom he had oppressed might behold their once powerful enemy, the secret pagan and sybarite, shaven and humiliated. it appears that theodora was not yet satisfied, though she is not directly implicated by procopius in the last act of the tragedy. the bishop of cyzicus was murdered, and as john was one of his many bitter enemies, he was arrested, scourged, and driven into exile and poverty.45 the fate of the unhappy euphemia is unknown; she was probably compelled to enter a nunnery and weep there over the memory of the imperial tigress and her friend.
this story of perfidy, corruption and vindictiveness, which procopius tells openly in his historical work, disposes us to believe the sequel, as it is narrated in the “anecdotes,” even if we must regard certain details of the narrative with reserve. there was with belisarius in persia a son of antonina by a former husband (or lover) of the name of photius. bitterly ashamed of his mother’s conduct, he accepted from belisarius the charge of watching her lover theodosius. at ephesus he learned that theodosius was in constantinople, and soon caused him to fly back to ephesus and cling to the altars which had sheltered so much vice and crime since the law of sanctuary had been established. the prelate, however, delivered theodosius to the youth, and he was imprisoned in cilicia.
theodora was now eager to reward her friend and she had photius arrested and scourged. he refused to reveal the prison in which he had placed theodosius, but an officer was bribed to betray the secret, and the thracian was brought to theodora’s apartments. theodora then sent for antonina and said: “dear patrician, yesterday there fell into my hands a gem finer than any that mortal eye has ever seen; if you would like to see it, i will show it to you.” procopius concludes this astounding story by saying that photius was kept for four years in the empress’s underground dungeons. twice he escaped to the church of st sophia, and twice he was dragged back; at length he got away from constantinople and hid from the vindictiveness of theodora in the robes of a monk. there are writers who flatly refuse to believe this statement, though the authentic actions of theodora which we have described lend it some plausibility. once more, however, the recently published works of the contemporary bishop of ephesus supply some confirmation. we read in them that46 photius, son of antonina, “became a monk for some cause or other”; but the pathos of gibbon’s picture of his fate is somewhat lessened when we read that he still enlivened the monastic life with his genial soldierly vices and led the troops to the plunder of the southern provinces.
i have mentioned the underground prisons of theodora. since it is from the “anecdotes” alone that we learn of these dungeons, we should regard the statements with some reserve, and in this case there is additional reason for reserve. as gibbon says: “darkness is propitious to cruelty, but it is likewise favourable to calumny and fiction.” procopius seems to know too much of what passed in these carefully guarded places. theodora doubtless had spies everywhere, and it would be easy enough for her to have her enemies conveyed into the palace during the night, or to some prison in remote provinces. somewhere about this time (541), we learn from john of ephesus, her episcopal friend anthimus incurred the anger of the emperor and disappeared. john assures us that anthimus was hidden in the empress’s apartments for seven years. the two chamberlains who waited on him alone knew the secret, besides theodora, until the day of her death. a woman with such resources could easily maintain private dungeons if she willed, and we can hardly say that it would be inconsistent with her character. but when procopius minutely describes the fetid condition of these prisons, and tells how fiercely the prisoners were scourged, or how cords were tightened round their heads until the eyes started from their sockets, we are disposed to think that he has hastily admitted popular rumours which the judicious historian must set aside as unauthoritative.
on the other hand, a set of grave charges which procopius combines with these statements are not without very serious confirmation. his most persistent charge against justinian and theodora is that they47 extorted money by cruel and flagrantly dishonest means. the superb buildings—the new palace, the new st sophia, etc.—with which justinian adorned the city absorbed stupendous sums of money; and the personal luxury and religious munificence of theodora were such that a vast fortune would be needed to sustain them. it is equally certain that the money was largely raised by corrupt means. i have quoted the monastic writer zonaras saying that justinian raised money “by fair means and foul” and by “dishonest practices”; and the weighty testimony of evagrius that the emperor was of such “insatiable avarice” that he would share the “vile gain” of loose women impeaching wealthy men on false charges. the most that we can say for justinian is that the money was not spent in personal luxury, and that it was extorted by subordinate officers. agathias, another good authority, tells us how the steward anatolius used to forge or suppress wills, and practise other dishonest arts, so that he might affix to houses and estates the strip of purple which betokened that they had become the property of the emperor.
it is indisputable that the metropolis and the provinces suffered a most unjust and corrupt spoliation in order to sustain the splendour of the reign of justinian and theodora. now zonaras declares that the empress was “worse than justinian in extorting money, both by unlawful and lawful means,” and that she was “especially ingenious in finding ways” to enrich herself. wealthy men had charges of secret heresy or unnatural vice brought against them, and their fortunes passed into the coffers of theodora. this must mean that her servants, as the informers, claimed for her the legal share of the confiscated property which went to an informer.
here again, therefore, the charges in the “anecdotes” are substantially confirmed. not content with securing testaments in her favour, she had them forged or altered. she suborned witnesses to support charges of vice or48 heresy. the only difference from zonaras is in the added allegation of physical cruelty, and on this point procopius is at times explicit. a member of the blue party, bassus, a refined and delicate youth, issued some squib upon the empress, possibly referring to her early career. he was dragged from the church in which he had taken refuge, charged with and convicted of vice, and subjected, before an indignant crowd, to the barbaric mutilation with which such vice was then punished. his property went to theodora—in part, i assume, for laying information. usually it was the greens who suffered. so angry were the people that they accused theodora of a secret (but “impotent”) love of the sinister syrian financier, peter barsymes, who had succeeded john of cappadocia in the duty of governing and exploiting constantinople. the restraint with which procopius represents her love as “impotent” lends credit to his other charges. an accusation of an actual liaison would have been more credible than some of the stories he reproduces.
a few episodes remain in the career of theodora from which we may confirm our impression of her remarkable personality. unfortunately, they rest entirely on the authority of the “anecdotes,” and cannot be pressed; we know only from another, and a sound, authority that belisarius was maliciously attacked and disgraced after his many brilliant campaigns on behalf of the empire.
to the evils of oppression, spoliation, corruption of justice, and persecution which afflicted the eastern empire under justinian and theodora there was added in the year 542 the deadly scourge of the plague, and for several years in succession it scattered the seeds of death over the broad provinces. justinian at length contracted it, and became dangerously ill. as he had no son, the question of the succession to the throne was very naturally discussed, and the generals belisarius and buza in the persian camp incautiously expressed themselves on the rumour that justinian was dying, or were represented49 to the empress by her spies as having done so. she at once ordered them to constantinople. buza is said to have been lodged in her underground prisons, and belisarius was stripped of his rank, his guard and his immense wealth. a eunuch was sent by theodora to secure the large sums he had deposited in the east, and the chosen soldiers who formed his personal guard, and were maintained at his expense, were distributed among the army. the greatest soldier that the eastern empire ever possessed, the most brilliant contributor to the success of justinian’s reign, a man who had preserved his loyalty in a decade of supreme military power, he was received at the palace with cold haughtiness, and retired in deep distress to his mansion. when at length he observed the approach of a servant of the empress, he prepared for death. instead of death, however, theodora’s officer brought this extraordinary message: “you know what you have done to me, belisarius, but i forgive your crimes on account of what your wife has done for me. hope for the future through her, but know that we shall hear how you bear yourself to antonina.” and the episode closes with the great soldier kissing the feet of his perfidious wife, vowing that he will be her slave, and accepting the office of master of the stables in the imperial service which he had so gloriously illumined. theodora had secured an enormous sum of money and intimidated an enemy.
up to the last year of theodora’s life (548) the implacable writer of the “anecdotes” pursues his record of her misdeeds. ever attentive to the men who might some day dislodge her and her relatives from the palace, theodora watched with especial jealousy the grave and distinguished nephew of the emperor, germanus, and his three children. his eldest daughter justina was in her nineteenth year, yet none had dared, out of fear of theodora, to offer marriage to her. theodora then decided to unite the fortunes of the two houses, and secure the succession, by commanding justina to wed50 her grandson anastasius—obviously the son of an illegitimate daughter of the empress, since it was little over twenty years since her marriage to justinian. justina refused, and was vindictively married by the empress to a common officer. she then commanded the daughter of belisarius, joannina, to wed anastasius. procopius, forgetting that he has stripped belisarius of almost all his wealth (an exaggeration), says that theodora wanted in this way to secure the general’s fortune, but we may assume that theodora was mainly endeavouring to secure the succession to the throne for her grandson. her own health was delicate, and justinian was well over sixty. belisarius shrank from the union, and even antonina seems to have refused to further it. all knew that a struggle impended between the families of justinian and theodora, and it must have been the general feeling that the former would win. theodora is said to have angrily united joannina to her grandson in the loose popular form of marriage; indeed later rumour said that she had the young woman violated first.
another matrimonial interference of the empress in her later years exhibits the better features of her character. an ambitious general, artabanes, sought and obtained the hand of justinian’s niece, whom he had delivered from peril in africa. soon afterwards, however, a woman appeared who claimed that she was the legitimate wife of artabanes. she appealed to the empress, and theodora forced artabanes to take back his humbler wife. procopius tells this story in one of the historical works in which he was careful not to offend the ruling powers, and he courteously adds that “it was the nature of theodora to befriend afflicted women.” it is the only instance of her doing so that has reached us, and, ungracious as it may seem to cast a doubt upon the pure humanity of that one recorded good deed, one is compelled to suggest that it was not to her interest to see a niece of justinian married to a successful commander.
on the 29th of june 548, after a reign of twenty-one51 years, theodora died of cancer. her body was embalmed and exposed for public veneration in the golden-roofed triclinon of the palace. there, still dressed in the imperial purple, still bearing the magnificent diadem for a few days, she lay on a golden bed for friends and enemies to gaze upon the last state of one of the most remarkable personalities of the time.
the character of theodora must be interpreted in so purely oriental a sense that it is difficult for the modern european to understand it. whether greek or syrian in origin, she was an incarnation of the spirit of the great metropolis in whose life syria and greece were so singularly blended. it is useless any longer to cast doubt upon her earlier career. she was reared in that old theatrical world in which moral restraint was wholly unknown; and her beauty, vivacity and nervous strength make it probable enough that she was distinguished in it for dissoluteness. that in her later life she spent vast sums of money on the church and philanthropy is unquestionable; nor would i doubt for a moment that she was perfectly sincere in her endless conversations with holy men. but her passionate nature, difficult position and supple intelligence gave her a genius for casuistry, and she fell into vices far worse than the vices of her youth. quite apart from the attacks of her bitter, anonymous enemy, we have ample evidence that she was vindictive, cruel, unscrupulous, dishonest and callous. to send a bejewelled cross to the holy church at jerusalem, or build a monastery, she would ruin and despoil an innocent man or wreck the happiness of a woman: to secure the preaching of the true faith in christ she would depose an upright pope on forged evidence and put a scoundrel in the most sacred chair in christendom. it was the temper of constantinople—to rise from vice and folly to defend the doctrines of the church and enforce them with the dagger or the torch. the further things that are said of her in the famous “anecdotes” must, for the serious historian, remain unproved but not improbable.
