maestricht.—taken by the prince of parma in 1579; reduced by the prince of orange, in 1632. louis xiv took it in 1675. william, prince of orange, invested it in 1676; restored to the dutch in 1678; besieged by the french, in 1748. in 1793, attacked by the french, who took it the following year; but in 1814, it was delivered up to the allied forces.
magenta, battle of.—fought june 4th, 1859, between the french and austrians. the french gained a splendid victory, the allies losing 12,000, the austrians 15,000. the latter rapidly retreated and evacuated milan. the battle of magenta was begun by the austrians, who, although in full retreat towards pavia, were ordered to change their front, and attack the advanced guard of the allies, who had crossed the ticino at buffalora. suddenly 25,000 austrians attacked a battalion of zouaves, together with two battalions of grenadiers; a close and deadly fire was now exchanged. then the austrians charged with the bayonet. at 12 o’clock the french were retiring, having lost general leclere, a colonel, a lieutenant colonel, and 12 officers, when reinforcements appearing on their left, they rallied and forced the austrians to withdraw. the bold assault of general mcmahon decided the victory; and for his brave conduct and efficient generalship, napoleon conferred on him the rank of marshal, with the title of duke of magenta. general guyalai brought into the action 120,000 men; he left 20,000 of them wounded or dead on the battle-field: 7000 were taken prisoners; 5 flags, 4000 knapsacks, 12,000 muskets and 4 guns, fell into the hands of the french. during the battle of magenta the bridge and the village of magenta were taken and retaken seven times. it was only at half-past eight at night that the austrians withdrew. their retreat was slow and orderly.
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maida, battle of.—fought between the french, commanded by general regnier, and the british, under major general sir john stuart. the french were nearly double the number of the british, yet the latter gained a most glorious victory on the “plains of maida,” a village of calabria. the loss of the french was very great, july 4th, 1806. the british commander, from this victory, has historically received the name of the “hero of the plains of maida.”
major.—this officer holds the rank between a lieutenant colonel and a captain. a major general is one who commands a division, next above rank to a brigadier general.
malakoff and redan, attack on the.—in the celebrated crimean war. the following is a good description of the attack:
“general pelissier divided his attacking force into three columns, numbering altogether about 25,000 men. the first, under general mayran, was to assault the extreme left of the russian line; the second, in the centre, led by general brunet, was to turn the malakoff on its proper left; while the third, under general d’autemarre, was to operate upon its right. the imperial guard was held in reserve, and two batteries of artillery occupied the mamelon. the signal for advance was to be three rockets fired from the lancaster battery, which general pelissier had chosen as his position of observation. by an unfortunate mistake, general mayran mistook the flaming fuse of a bomb-shell for the rocket, and eager for the fray, led his division rapidly forward. it was now apparent that the enemy had full notice of our intended attack. not only the batteries were fully armed, but the steamers were anchored so as to be able to pour their broadsides upon the french columns. generals saurin and de failly, obedient to the commands of their general, dashed forward, followed at an impetuous pace by their troops. then the russians opened fire from their batteries and steamers, and a hurricane of shot and shell arrested the career of the brave french; and their leader, general mayran, paid the penalty of his mistake, falling mortally wounded at their head. general pelissier had now arrived upon the scene of action, and perceiving the error, at once ordered up reinforcements to the threatened division, which, strengthened by the addition of the voltigeurs of the guard, some regiments of the line, and a battalion of grenadiers, was enabled to maintain its position under the orders of general de failly, who succeeded to the command, though prevented by the deadly fire of the enemy from advancing further. the centre column, under general[196] brunet, had little better success than the other division. in fact, the unlucky mistake of mayran, in precipitating the attack, had disordered the entire plan of advance, and aroused the russians, and enabled them to concentrate their strength for defence. general brunet himself was struck in the chest by a musket-ball; and his division was forced to retire to the trenches with great loss. general d’autemarre, who commanded the left attack, no sooner saw the preconcerted signal, than he gave the word to advance, and the 5th foot chasseurs and the first battalion of the 19th regiment of the line, deploying to the left, along the crest of the ravine which there enters the town, carried the entrenchment which connects it with the malakoff, and succeeded in entering the fortification. the sappers who accompanied the advance immediately planted ladders, the remainder of the regiments hurried forward, and the eagles of the french army waved aloft, encouraging the repulsed troops of the other divisions to renewed exertions.
while the french were thus straining every nerve against tremendous odds, and with fearful loss, to perform their parts in the achievements of the day, the english were none the less eager to win their laurels before the great redan. sir george brown, just returned from the kertch expedition, was intrusted with the direction of the assaulting party, composed of detachments of the light, second, and fourth divisions. the plan of attack was, that the force should be divided into three columns; the light division to storm the right of the redan at the re-entering angle; the fourth division was to attack the left flank of the fortification at a similar position; while the second was to storm the apex of the redan, as soon as the other divisions had established themselves in the work. colonel yea, of the 7th fusiliers, led the storming party of the light division, composed of the 7th, 23rd, 33rd, and 34th. colonel shirley held the 19th, 77th, and 85th in reserve. the troops advanced in good order from the trenches, preceded by a covering party of rifles, and dashed forward to the attack. they had, however, several hundred yards of broken ground to cross; and the enemy, well prepared for their reception, poured from every embrasure such a storm of shot and shell as effectually broke their ranks. colonel yea and the regimental officers gallantly endeavoured to animate their men to the assault, and led them fearlessly forward against the belching fire of the batteries. as the brave old colonel was cheering on his men, a shower of grape swept along, and he rolled in the agonies of death, struck at once in the head and stomach. his brave companions fell around him dead or wounded; and the regiments,[197] unable to face such a sheet of fire, fell back disordered to the trenches, leaving nearly a third of their number on the field.
on the left attack, sir john campbell, with the fourth division, exhibited extraordinary courage, and led his men forward to the attack with tremendous energy. here again was the tragedy of the light division repeated. the men were mowed down as they left the trenches, and sir john, like colonel yea, fell cheering on his men. the loss was terrific. the second division, to whom had been reserved the duty of attacking the apex of the redan, seeing the failure of the flank assaults, desisted from the attempt, and withdrew to the trenches, though having suffered considerably from the enemy’s fire.
the only success of the day was that achieved by the third division under general eyre, who had been ordered by lord raglan to attack the cemetery batteries, at the head of the ravine leading to the dockyard creek. the brigade consisted of the 9th, 18th, 28th, and 44th regiments. four volunteers from each regiment, under major fielden, of the 44th regiment, were selected to feel the way, and cover the advance. the 18th royal irish formed the storming party. they possessed themselves of the cemetery with but little difficulty; and then four companies of the 18th dashed forward, so eager were they for the fray, and actually entered the town, and established themselves in the russian houses. they were followed by the 9th, under colonel borton. the enemy’s batteries now opened a fierce fire on the daring handful of men; and although they could not drive them from their position, effectually prevented their retreat, from four o’clock in the morning until eight at night. during that time they suffered terribly from thirst, and some of the brave fellows actually crawled from the houses, reached the english lines, and returned with cans of water to their comrades. in this way a letter was convoyed asking for reinforcements; but general eyre had already retired from the spot, and the two gallant regiments were left unsupported, to bear the brunt of the enemy’s fire until nightfall, when the remnant of them withdrew from their dangerous post, and rejoined the main body.
the failure of the english attack enabled the russians to draw from the redan reinforcements to repel the french under general d’autemarre, who were so nearly redeeming the fortunes of the day at the malakoff. unable to contend against the forces now brought against them, the french were compelled to retire from the commanding position they had obtained. general pelissier sent reinforcements; but it was[198] impossible a single division, exposed to an appalling flank fire and an immensely superior force in front, could long sustain such an unequal contest. they fought bravely; but on that fatal day bravery availed but little, and they, too, added to the numbers of the defeated.
such was the great disaster of the 18th of june, the anniversary of that day when the two nations, now brothers in defeat, were opposed to each other on the plains of waterloo. want of concert between the generals—and to pelissier the blame is mainly due—resulted in a most disheartening repulse, and the loss of thousands of brave men; the english casualties amounting to no less than 251 killed (including 21 officers); 70 officers and 1130 men wounded; and 22 missing. the french loss must have been greater.”
malplaquet, battle of.—the allies under the duke of marlborough and prince eugene, gained this battle, september 11th, 1709, over the french, commanded by marshal villars. the armies of each consisted of nearly 120,000 choice men. it was attended with immense slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which terrible loss was but ill-repaid by the capture of mons, which followed the victory.
mamelon and quarries.—the capture of the mamelon and the action of the quarries, took place in the great siege of sebastopol. the former was gallantly stormed and taken by our allies the french and the action of the quarries redoubted to the indomitable pluck of british soldiers. the following is a good account of the action and capture of the fort:
“a third general bombardment opened on the 6th of june. at half-past two o’clock in the afternoon, the fire of 157 english and 300 french guns and mortars simultaneously opened upon the town. the russian reply was feeble, and inflicted but little damage upon our batteries. a fierce cannonade was maintained by the allies during that and the following day, and towards evening, on the 7th, a grand combined attack was made by the english on the quarries, and by the french on the mamelon. the former of these works, as the name implies, were pits from which stone had formerly been excavated for the buildings in the town, and occupied a position between the head of our advanced sap and the great redan, the most formidable work of russian defence, and which in the general plan of attack had been apportioned to the english. the[199] mamelon, as it was specifically called—the general term mamelon, a rounded hill, describing its appearance—was the foremost of two similar eminences, at a short distance from each other. the one nearest the town was surmounted by the malakoff tower and works, and was the most elevated and commanding position of the enemy’s line of defence, the mamelon, or mamelon vert, as the french designated it, had long since lost all claim to the latter name, being excavated into trenches and rifle-pits, from which a most annoying fire was maintained upon the french lines. our allies had already made a very gallant though unsuccessful attempt at its capture; and it was under the cover of its guns that the russian sortie of the 22nd of march was made.
it was then absolutely necessary that an endeavour should be made by the besieging army to carry these formidable works, which presented such obstacles to their advance; and accordingly the evening of the 7th of june was fixed for the assault. at about six o’clock, the french battalions, chosen for the assault, consisting of the algerine zouaves, detachments of the 61st, 7th, and 50th regiments of the line, and of the chasseurs-à-pied, and imperial guard, about 1200 men in all, moved up to the front, closely followed by the reserve or working party, to follow the attacking column, and secure possession of the works. this second column, commanded by general brunet, comprised a battalion of the chasseurs-à-pied, and the 11th, 24th, 69th, and 16th regiments of the line. general bosquet was entrusted with the entire direction of the assault.
our attacking force was composed of detachments from the light and second divisions. about 400 men from the 18th, 7th, 47th, 49th, were told off to lead the assault, under the immediate command of colonel shirley, of the 90th regiment. the working parties were selected from remaining regiments of the light division; the main body remaining under arms in reserve.
immediately the signal rockets took their flight towards the town, the attacking columns darted forward. the active french troops swarmed up the sides of the mamelon, and in a few moments were in hand-to-hand contest with the russian defenders. with an unusual supineness the batteries of the town offered no impediment to the advance. it might be that the fierce bombardment to which for twenty-four hours they had been exposed, had temporarily silenced them. whatever might be the cause, but little opposition was sustained by, and scarcely any loss inflicted on the attacking columns, who reached the parapet on the crown of the[200] hill at a rapid pace. here the enemy made a stand, and for a brief space struggled bravely to maintain their position. it was, however, but an ineffectual effort. the french fought with the utmost daring; and the enemy giving way before the impetuous onslaught, retreated down the hill, the french in eager pursuit. in the valley, however, the russians received large reinforcements from the malakoff tower on the opposite eminence, and a fierce fire was opened on the french from the batteries of the malakoff. then the tide of battle turned; and the hitherto assailants, out-numbered, were driven up the hill, contesting every foot of ground. some of the zouaves, with characteristic daring, evading the attacking force, pressed onwards, and, as on the previous occasion, positively entered the malakoff, and spiked some of the guns. our allies, unable to bear the vigorous charge and overwhelming numbers of the enemy, who now pressed upon them, were forced to relinquish the hold they had obtained upon the mamelon, and retreated over the brow of the hill, reluctantly relinquishing the advantage they had gained. the french, after a brilliant attack, were driven back by the reinforced defenders of the hill, and the russians were once more masters of the mamelon.
general bosquet, however, was not the man to accept a repulse as a final defeat. reforming the column in the trenches at the foot of the hill, and sending fresh troops to their assistance, he prepared for a second assault. this time the french, eager to retrieve their disaster, rushed forward with emulous bravery, and again the hill side was covered with the advancing columns, pressing onwards to the attack. trench after trench was carried and in a few moments the assailers again occupied the topmost parapet. the russians fought desperately; but no courage could withstand the fierce valour of the french. the enemy were hurled down the hills, and our allies, mad with excitement, rushed after them, in a rapid bayonet charge, covering the ground with the killed and wounded, and driving the flying enemy to the refuge of the malakoff. meanwhile the working party in their rear had speedily thrown up parapets and breastworks on the russian side; and although the guns from the town and the shipping in the harbour played vigorously upon the hill, they were enabled to hold their important acquisition.
farther to the right, the french had also attacked and carried, after considerable resistance, a line of works leading to and defending careening bay, and connected with the works of the mamelon, known as the white works. a number of guns were taken, and the french were thus in[201] possession of an access to the great harbour, and enabled to throw up works commanding the shipping.
we have thus far related the varying fortunes of the french attack. let us now turn to the english assault on the quarries. simultaneously with the advance of our allies, colonel campbell threw his small force into the russian works, experiencing but trifling opposition; and congratulating himself upon having so easily achieved his object. advancing beyond the quarries towards the redan, there is no doubt the adventurous english might even have entered that great work itself, so great was the confusion among the russians, caused by the attack on the mamelon, had they been in sufficient force to warrant such a feat. the enemy, however, soon mustered their strength, and colonel campbell was forced, after a stubborn resistance, to yield his position. three times did the small british force retreat from the quarries, and as many times they retook them with the bayonets. at length they were enabled to throw up an earthwork, which ensured their possession of this important position. in one of the russian attacks, an instance of individual prowess occurred, which obtained for the performer of it the rare honour of being named, though a non-commissioned officer, in lord raglan’s despatch. the assailing party had wavered a little before the sharp fire from the british muskets, when lance-corporal quin, of the 47th, darted out of the work towards a russian officer and four men, who had advanced somewhat in front of the main body of the enemy. with the butt-end of his musket he brained one of the soldiers, bayoneted a second and the other two precipitately fled from the doughty corporal. then collaring the officer, and administering a gentle stimulant with the point of his bayonet to quicken his advance, he dragged him a prisoner into the work, in less time than we have occupied to tell the tale.
the enemy’s loss must been very great, judging by that which the victors sustained in the two attacks. the french lost about 60 officers, and 2000 men killed and wounded; and the british, 35 officers, and 365 rank and file.”
marshal, field.—this rank is of modern date in the british army. it is the highest military rank in the army.
marston moor, battle of.—this battle was the beginning of the misfortunes of charles i of england—fought july 3rd, 1644.
“the scots and parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging york, when prince rupert, joined by the marquis of newcastle, determined[202] to raise the siege. both armies drew up on marston moor, to the number of 50,000, and the victory seemed long undecided between them. rupert, who commanded the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by oliver cromwell, who now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops which he had taken care to levy and discipline. cromwell was victorious; he pushed his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement, and a second victory; the prince’s whole train of artillery was taken, and the royalists never after recovered the blow.”
merida.—in spain.—taken by the french in january, 1811. near here the british army, under lord hill, defeated the french, under general girard, after a severe engagement october 28th, 1811. the british took merida from the french, july 1812, after a severe encounter,—general hill himself leading the combined armies of britain and spain.
milan.—french expelled from it by charles v, of germany, 1525. seized again by the french, june 30, 1796. retaken by the austrians in 1799; regained by the french, may 31, 1800. napoleon crowned with the iron crown, at milan, may 26, 1805. (see longbeards or longobards). this city, celebrated for the milan decrees against all continental intercourse with england, issued by napoleon, december 17th, 1807. here an insurrection occurred against the austrians, march 18th, 1848, which resulted in a battle, and flight of the viceroy and troops.
militia.—supposed to have been introduced into england by king alfred. the english volunteers and militia, a splendid body of men, who have more than once materially assisted government in times of necessity. the canadian volunteers are a body of men almost equal to the soldiers of the line; and during the late fenian excitement, have shown to the whole world that a brave man delights to defend his hearth and home, and that “dulce est mori pro patria.”
minden, battle of.—fought, august 1st, 1759, between the english, hessians and hanoverians, on the one side, and the french on the other. the allies were commanded by prince ferdinand, and under him lord george sackville. the allies gained a complete victory, and pursued the french to the very ramparts of minden. lord sackville, who commanded the allied cavalry, for some disobedience of orders, on his[203] return to england was tried by court martial and dismissed the service, but was afterwards restored.
mockern, battles of.—between the french, under eugène beauharnois, and the allied russian and prussian army, which was signally defeated with great loss, april, 1813. there was another bloodier battle fought here, october 14th, 1813, between the same contending armies; five times mockern was taken and retaken during this conflict.
mohatz, battles of.—in hungary.—here, in 1526, louis, king of hungary, was defeated by the turks, under solyman ii, with the loss of 22,000 men. another battle was fought here between the christians, commanded by prince charles of lorraine, and the turks, who were defeated with the loss of 10,000 men, a.d. 1687.
mohilon, battle of.—between the russians, under the celebrated prince bagration, and the french, under marshal davoust. this was one of the most bloody engagements in the campaign of 1812. the russians were totally defeated, with immense loss in killed and wounded; fought, july 23rd, 1812.
molwitz, battle of.—between the prussians and austrians. the prussians were commanded by frederick iii, who obtained a great and important victory. an immense number of killed and wounded on the side of the austrians was the result of this sanguinary battle. austria being at the time in alliance with great britain, the consequence of the victory seriously affected the interest of that country. fought, april 10th (march 30th), 1741.
montebello, battle of.—fought may 20th, 1859, between the austrians and french. “on the 20th may, a severe action was fought at montebello, which lasted six hours. the austrians appear, in the first instance, to have taken montebello from the french, and to have been afterwards expelled by the french. a desperate hand to hand conflict took place in the village, which had to be carried, house after house. the austrians, after the battle, evacuated casteggio, and retired along the creatisma road.”
monte video.—taken by storm, by the british force, under sir samuel auchmuty, february 3rd, 1807, with a terrible loss of nearly[204] two-thirds of his army. it was evacuated, july 7th, same year, in consequence of the severe repulse of the british at buenos ayres.
montereau, battle of.—fought, february 18th, 1814, between the allied army and the french, the latter commanded by napoleon himself. in this desperate engagement, the allies were defeated with great loss in killed and wounded. this battle was one of the last ever gained by napoleon. four months after he was ruined at waterloo.
moodkee, battle of.—in india.—between the british and sikhs. the advanced guard of the british was attacked by the sikh forces, but the latter were repulsed and driven back three miles, losing great numbers of men and 15 pieces of cannon, december 18th, 1845. sir robert sale was mortally wounded in this battle, being in his sixty-fifth year. lady sale signalized herself during the two memorable retreats from afghanistan.
morgarten, battle of.—between the swiss and austrians. the swiss numbered 1300, the austrians 20,000. fought, november 15th, 1315. “the 15th november, 1315, dawned; the sun darted his first rays on the shields and armour of the advancing host; and this being the first army ever known to have attempted the frontiers of the cantons, the swiss viewed its long line with various emotions. montfort de tettnang led the cavalry into the narrow pass of morgarten, and soon filled the whole space between the mountain (mount sattel) and the lake. fifty men, on the eminence above morgarten, raised a sudden shout, and rolled down heaps of rocks and stones among the crowded ranks. the confederates on the mountain, perceiving the impression made by this attack, rushed down in close array, and fell upon the flank of the disordered column. with massy clubs they dashed in pieces the armour of the enemy, and dealt their blows and thrusts with long pikes. the narrowness of the defile admitted of no evolutions, and a slight frost having injured the road, the horses were impeded in all their motions; many leaped into the lake; all were startled; and at last the whole column of soldiers gave way, and suddenly fell back on the infantry; and these last, as the nature of the country did not allow them to open their files, were run over by the fugitives, and many of them trampled to death. a general rout ensued, and duke leopold was, with much difficulty, rescued by a peasant, who led him to winterthur, where the historian of the times saw him arrive in the evening, pale, sullen and dismayed.”
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mortar.—a short gun of an extraordinary large bore and close chamber, used for throwing bomb shells. the mortar was first made in england in 1543.
moscow, burning of.—entered by the french, september 4th, 1812. “at length moscow, with its domes, and towers, and palaces, appeared in sight; and napoleon, who had joined the advance guard, gazed long and thoughtfully on that goal of his wishes. murat went forward, and entered the gates with his cavalry; but as he passed through the streets, he was struck by the solitude which surrounded him.
nothing was heard but the heavy tramp of his squadrons as he passed along, for a deserted and abandoned city was the meagre prize, for which such unparalleled efforts had been made. as night drew its curtains over the splendid capital, napoleon entered the gates, and immediately appointed mortier governor. in his directions, he commanded him to abstain from all pillage. for this, said he, you shall be answerable with your life. defend moscow against all, whether friend or foe. the bright moon rose over the mighty city, tipping with silver the domes of more than 200 churches, and pouring a flood of light over 1000 palaces, and the dwellings of 300,000 inhabitants. the weary army sunk to rest; but there was no sleep for mortier’s eyes.
not the gorgeous and variegated palaces and their rich ornaments, nor the parks and gardens, and oriental magnificence that everywhere surrounded him, kept him wakeful, but the ominous foreboding that some dire calamity was hanging over the silent capital. when he entered it, scarcely a living soul met his gaze, as he looked down the long streets; and when he broke open the buildings, he found parlors, and bedrooms, and chambers all furnished and in order, but no occupants. the sudden abandonment of their homes, betokened some secret purpose yet to be fulfilled. the midnight moon was sailing over the city, when the cry of “fire!” reached the ears of mortier; and the first light over napoleon’s falling empire was kindled, and the most wondrous scene of modern time commenced,—the burning of moscow. mortier, as governor of the city, immediately issued his orders, and was putting forth every exertion, when, at day-light, napoleon hastened to him. affecting to disbelieve the reports that the inhabitants were firing their own city, he put more rigid commands on mortier to keep the soldiers from their work of destruction.
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the marshal simply pointed to some iron covered houses that had not yet been opened, from every crevice of which smoke was issuing like steam from the sides of a pent up volcano. sad and thoughtful, napoleon turned toward the kremlin, the ancient palace of the czars, whose huge structure rose high above the surrounding edifices.
in the morning, mortier, by great exertions, was enabled to subdue the fire. but the next night, at midnight, the sentinels on watch, on the lofty kremlin, saw below them the flames bursting through the houses and palaces, and the cry of “fire!” “fire!” passed through the city. the dread scene had now fairly opened. fiery balloons were seen dropping from the air, and lighting upon the houses; dull explosions were heard on every side from the shut up dwellings, and the next moment a bright light burst forth, and the flames were raging through the apartments. all was uproar and confusion. the serene air and moonlight of the night before, had given way to the driving clouds, and a wild tempest that swept with the roar of the sea over the city. flames arose on every side, blazing and crackling in the storm, while clouds of smoke and sparks, in an incessant shower, went driving toward the kremlin. the clouds themselves seemed turned into fire, rolling in wrath over devoted moscow. mortier, crushed with the responsibility thus thrown over his shoulders, moved with his young guard amid this desolation, blowing up the houses, and facing the tempest and the flames, struggling nobly to arrest the conflagration. he hastened from place to place amid the blazing ruins, his face blackened with the smoke, and his hair and eyebrows seared with the fierce heat. at length, the day dawned, a day of tempest and of flame; and mortier, who had strained every nerve for 36 hours, entered a palace, and dropped down with fatigue.
the manly form and stalwart arm, that had so long carried death into the ranks of the enemy, at length gave way, and the gloomy marshal lay and panted in utter exhaustion. the day was one of tempest; and when night again enveloped the city it was one broad flame, wavering to and fro in the blast.
the wind had increased to a perfect hurricane, and shifted from quarter to quarter, as if on purpose to swell the sea of fire, and extinguish the last hope. the fire was approaching the kremlin, and already the roar of the flames and the crash of the falling houses, and the crackling of burning timbers, were borne to the ears of the startled emperor.
he arose and walked to and fro, stopping and convulsively gazing[207] on the terrific scene. murat, eugène, and berthier rushed into his presence, and on their knees besought him to flee; but he still clung to that haughty palace, as if it were his empire. but at length the shout, “the kremlin on fire!” was heard above the roar of the conflagration, and napoleon reluctantly consented to leave. he descended into the street with his staff, and looked about for a way of egress, but the flames blocked every passage. at length they discovered a postern gate, leading to the moskwa, and entered it, but they had only entered still further into the danger. as napoleon cast his eyes around the open space, girdled and arched with fire, smoke, and cinders, he saw one single street yet open, but all on fire.
into this he rushed, and amid the crash of falling houses, and raging of the flames, over burning ruins, through clouds of rolling smoke, and between walls of fire, he pressed on; and at length, half suffocated, emerged in safety from the blazing city, and took up his quarters in the imperial palace of petrousky, nearly three miles distant.
mortier, relieved from his anxiety for the emperor, redoubled his efforts to arrest the conflagration. his men cheerfully rushed into every danger. breathing nothing but smoke and ashes,—canopied by flame, and smoke, and cinders,—surrounded by walls of fire that rocked to and fro, and fell with a crash amid the blazing ruins, carrying down with them red hot roofs of iron,—he struggled against an enemy, that no boldness could awe, or courage overcome.
those brave troops had heard the tramp of thousands of cavalry, sweeping battle without fear, but now they stood in still terror, before the march of the conflagration, under whose burning footsteps was heard the incessant crash of falling houses, and palaces, and churches. the continuous roar of the raging hurricane, mingled with that of the flames, was more terrible than the thunder of artillery; and before this new foe, in the midst of this battle of the elements, the awe-struck army stood powerless and affrighted. when night descended again on the city, it presented a spectacle, the like of which was never seen before, and which baffles all description: the streets of fire, the heavens a canopy of fire, and the entire body of the city a mass of fire, fed by a hurricane that whirled the blazing fragments in a constant stream through the air. incessant explosions, from the blowing up of stores of oil, and tar, and spirits, shook the very foundations of the city, and sent volumes of smoke rolling furiously toward the sky. huge sheets of canvas, on fire, came floating, like messengers of death, through the flames; the towers[208] and domes of the churches and palaces, glowed with red-hot heat over the wild sea below, then tottering a moment on their bases, were hurled by the tempest into the common ruin.
thousands of wretches, before unseen, were driven by the heat from the cellars and hovels, and streamed in an incessant throng through the streets. children were seen carrying their parents,—the strong the weak,—while thousands more were staggering under loads of plunder, they had snatched from the flames. this, too, would frequently take fire in the falling shower, and the miserable creatures would be compelled to drop it and flee for their lives. oh, it was a scene of woe and fear indescribable! a mighty and close packed city of houses, and churches, and palaces, wrapt from limit to limit in flames, which are fed by a whirling hurricane, is a sight this world will seldom see. but this was all within the city. to napoleon, without, the spectacle was still more sublime and terrific. when the flames had overcome all obstacles, and had wrapped everything in their red mantle, that great city looked like a sea of fire, swept by a tempest that drove it into vast billows.
huge domes and towers, throwing off sparks like blazing firebrands, now towered above these waves, and now disappeared in their maddening flow, as they rushed and broke high over tops, and scattered their spray of fire against the clouds. the heavens themselves seemed to have caught the conflagration, and the angry masses that swept it, rolled over a bosom of fire. columns of flame would rise and sink along the surface of the sea, and huge volumes of black smoke suddenly shoot into the air, as if volcanoes were working below.
the black form of the kremlin alone towered above the chaos, now wrapped in flame and smoke, and again emerged into view, standing amid the scene of desolation and terror, like virtue in the midst of a burning world, enveloped but unscathed by the devouring elements. napoleon stood and gazed upon this scene in silent awe. though nearly three miles distant, the windows and walls of his apartment were so hot, that he could scarcely bear his hand against them. said he, years afterwards, “it was the spectacle of a sea and billows of fire, a sky and clouds of flame; mountains of red rolling flame, like immense waves of the sea, alternately bursting forth, and elevating themselves to skies of fire, and then sinking into the ocean of flame below. oh! it was the most grand, the most sublime, the most terrific sight the world ever beheld.”
[209]
moskwa, battle of.—also called the battle of borodino, which see.
musket.—first used at the siege of anasitti, 1414. introduced generally into the british army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 1521.
munchengratz and gitschin, battles of.—fought, 28th june, 1866, between the austrians and the prussians. the times’ correspondent, with the prussian army, gives the following account of these battles:
“the prussian leader calculated that if he made a demonstration of a careless march towards munchengratz by the highroad and railway, the austrians, who might be on the mushey berg, would lie there quiet till the heads of his columns had passed their position in order that their artillery might take the marching troops in reverse, and that he might himself in the meantime turn their position. by the same bait he also hoped to hold his adversaries on the kaczowberg until their retreat was cut off. to effect this double object, the seventh division was to move from turnau by a road on the south side of the iser, whereby the village of wschew crosses the road from podoll to sobotka, at zdiar. it was then to take the austrians on the mushey berg in rear—for this hill slopes gently on its reverse side towards a rivulet which forms the little lake of zdiar. the division was afterwards to push on over the hill and strike the road from munchengratz to furstenbruck, between the village of bossin and the former place. on the right bank of the river general herwarth was to advance from huhnerwasser on munchengratz, cross the iser, and occupy the town, throwing out at the same time a division to his left, which by mohelnitz should take in reverse the defenders of the kaczowberg. the divisions of horne and manstein were to push down the main road from podoll, while strong reserves closed down to podoll. a division of infantry was to cross at huberlow and attack the kaczowberg in front, while a division of cavalry kept the communications open between the divisions on the right bank of the river. a strong division of cavalry was also sent from turnau to scour the country to jicin in the direction of josephstadt.
about eight o’clock this morning, prince charles, with general von voigts-retz, his chief of the staff, and general stuhltnahl, his quarter-master-general, came down to the bridge of podoll, and almost immediately the jagers, who formed the advanced guard of horne’s division,[210] crossed the bridge, but not before an opening cannonade in the direction of munchengratz told that bittenfeld was already engaged. on a hill upon the northern bank there was a convenient spot from which to see the whole theatre of the combat, and here the prussian staff went to watch the course of the action.
attention was called towards munchengratz, where the progress of bittenfeld’s attack could be traced by the puffs of white smoke which rose from the discharges of the artillery. the prussian cannonade was seen to be slowly advancing, and that of the austrian to be retiring, while a heavy cloud of black smoke rising close beside the town showed that the austrians had retired from the right bank of the river and had burned the bridge. for a short time the fight was stationary, but in about a quarter of an hour a bright flash of flame and a much heavier smoke rising from the austrian line told that an ammunition waggon had exploded. their battery then ceased firing and rapidly retired, while a quick advance of the prussian cannonade showed that bittenfeld’s pioneers had quickly thrown their bridge, and that his corps was across the iser. but the austrians did not go far, for in a short time they were again in action in the direction of the jung bunzlau road, and one battery was drawing off towards furstenbruck. it then seemed that bittenfeld had halted; the cannonade ceased in this direction. the heads of the prussian columns were some way past the hill, and were pushing steadily towards munchengratz, when the well-known puff of smoke rising from the dark firs on the mushey berg plateau showed that the austrians had opened fire upon them. the battery on the hill did not appear to be more than four guns, and at first they fired slowly, nor did they do much execution. their shells, projected from so great a height, went straight into the ground, and did not ricochet among the troops; but they were well aimed, and in most cases burst at the proper moment, and every now and then a man went down. a squadron of uhlans was directed to pass close along the foot of the mushey berg, so that the guns on the plateau could not be depressed sufficiently to hurt them, and were to gain a steep path which leads to the summit between the highest point and bossin, while an infantry brigade was to support the movement; but before this plan could be carried into execution the seventh division was heard engaged on the reverse side, and the austrian battery quickly limbered up and retired. the guns were not intercepted by the seventh division; but here general franscky made 600 prisoners from the infantry which was on the hill to support the battery.[211] while the seventh division was still engaged behind the mushey berg, four austrian guns appeared on the summit of the hill, between bossin and wessely, and opened fire against the prussian columns, who were now again advancing over the plain. but franscky was pushing towards them, and his artillery threatened to enfilade them, so that they soon had to retire. the seventh division then struck the road between munchengratz and bossin, and attacked the latter village. bittenfeld had already pushed towards it from munchengratz, and supported this attack. the first round of franscky’s artillery set fire to a house, which began to burn fiercely, and the flames were soon communicated to the next, for most of the cottages in this country are built of wood, which, dried in the hot summer sun, readily takes fire. after a sharp skirmish, the austrians were driven from the village and retired in the direction of furstenbruck, and they left here 200 prisoners; and general herwarth von bittenfeld had already captured 200.
with the occupation of the village of bossin ended the combat of munchengratz, in which, by a series of strategic movements, with little fighting, and slight loss—for the prussian killed, wounded, and missing do not number 100—prince frederick charles has gained about twelve miles of country, and has taken 1000 prisoners, has turned the strong position of the kaczowberg, and has effected his secure junction with the corps of general bittenfeld.
the corps of general von schmitt marched yesterday from the neighbourhood of podoll to sobotka, and there, striking the road from munchengratz to gitschin, general von schmitt changed the direction of his march to the left, and advanced towards gitschin. he moved with his two divisions at some distance apart—that of general von werder, or the third division, as it is named in the muster-roll of the army, led the way. von werder’s advanced guard consisted of the 2nd battalion of jagers, and the 3rd battalion of the 42nd regiment. in rear of these followed the three battalions of the regiment of the late king of prussia, the two remaining battalions of the 42nd, and one battalion of the 14th regiment, with one six-pounder and two four-pounder field-batteries.
a strong austrian force held the wood behind the first ravine, with its sharpshooters hidden behind the trunks of the fir-trees, with the view of compensating for the inferiority of their rifle to the prussian needle-gun. behind each marksman two soldiers were placed, whose only duty was to load their rifles and hand them to the picked men to whom the firing was intrusted. the austrian artillery was placed behind the wood, so that[212] it could bring a cross fire on the opening in the front through which the chaussée passes, and strike heavily on the sobotka bank of the ravine and the open country beyond. as the prussian advanced guard approached the ravine, the austrian batteries opened fire upon them, and the marksmen from behind the trees also soon commenced a biting fire. the jagers and the men of the 42nd quickly spread out as skirmishers, and, regardless of the withering fire to which they themselves were exposed, showered bullets from their quickly loaded arms against the defenders of the wood, while some of their artillery quickly brought into action tried to silence the austrian guns. but the fight was unequal, the sharpshooters behind the trees could rarely be seen, and the fire of the prussians did not tell much upon their concealed enemies, nor were their guns in sufficient force to engage successfully the more numerous austrian pieces. the jagers from among the trees were aiming well; the men of the 42nd were falling fast, and it seemed that the defenders would be able to hold the wood. but the rest of the prussian division was coming up; more artillery was already in action; and the austrian gunners began to fire with less effect. the regiment of the king of prussia soon arrived. the prussian soldiers, unable to make much impression with their fire on the riflemen in the trees, were already anxious to come to close quarters, and then general von werder sent his men forward to take the woods with the bayonet. they were carried, but not without loss, for the austrians retired from tree to tree, and only when pressed beyond the last skirt of the wood retired under cover of their guns and reserves to take up a position on the further brow of the next ravine. the musketry fire recommenced. the opponents stood on either bank of the hollow, and poured volley after volley into each other’s ranks, while the artillery, from positions on the flanks of both lines, sent their shells truly among their adversaries’ infantry. but here the needle-gun had more success, for the austrians stood up clear against the sky, and soon the white uniforms began to go down quickly. no troops so ill-armed could have stood before the murderous fire which the prussians directed against the opposite line. the austrians did all that men could do; but, after losing fearfully, were obliged to fall back and take up their third position in the village of lochow.
it was now about seven o’clock in the evening; the combat had already lasted almost two hours, but here it was renewed more fiercely than ever. the prussians, encouraged by their success—brave soldiers and bravely led—eagerly came to the attack. with hearts as big and with officers as[213] devoted, the austrians stood with a desperate calmness to receive them. on both sides the fighting was hard; but at any distance the austrian rifle had no chance against the needle-gun; and at close quarters the boyish soldiers of the kaiser could not cope with the broad-shouldered men of pomerania, who form the corps d’armée, one division of which was here engaged. yet for three-quarters of an hour the little village of lochow was held, and the continuous rattle of the rifles and the heavy cannonade of the guns remaining almost stationary told the determination of the assault and the stoutness of the defence. but the austrians were slowly forced from house to house and from orchard to orchard, and had to retreat to their last vantage ground on the top of the gitschin bank of the fourth ravine.
and here both sides re-engaged in the fight with the utmost fury. the defenders felt that this was their last standing-point, and on its maintenance depended the possession of gitschin; the assailants knew that success here would almost certainly bring them to the object of all their exertions. the prussian line soon formed on the top of the opposite bank to that held by the austrians, and then began to fire rapidly against the brow where the austrians stood. the latter returned the fire, but from necessity more slowly; still their guns smote the prussian troops heavily, and the shells, bursting in front of the assailants’ line, caused many casualties. but the pomeranians were highly excited, and it is said that a heavy mass of the prussians dashed down the road and rushed up the opposite slope with their rifles at the charge. there a fierce struggle ensued. the strong men of pomerania pressed hard against their lighter opponents, and pushed them beyond the brow of the slope on to the level plain; yet the lithe and active austrians fought hard, and strove to drive their bayonets into the faces of their taller antagonists; but strength and weight told, for their more powerful adversaries urged them back foot by foot till a gap was clearly opened in the defenders’ line. the musketry bullets had also told sharply on the austrians, and they were obliged to retire. they drew off across the plain towards gitschin, but not in rout. slowly and sullenly they drew back, suffering awful loss in the open plain where the needle-gun had a fair range; but they fought for every yard of ground, ever turning to send among the advancing prussians shots which were often truly aimed, but which formed no sufficient return for the showers of bullets which were rained upon themselves. for long the plain was the scene of the advancing combat, and it was not till near midnight that general von werder occupied[214] gitschin. in the town the austrians did not stand; they held some houses at the entrance for a short time, but these were carried, and then they retired rapidly towards the south. in their haste they left their hospitals; and here, as well as in lochow, von werder’s division took a large number of prisoners.”
mutiny:—a memorable mutiny in the british fleet,
for an advance of wages april 15th, 1797;
of the nore june, 1797;
of admiral mitchell’s fleet at bantry bay december, 1801;
great indian mutiny, begun march 27th, 1857.
mycale, battle of.—fought, september 22nd, 479 b.c., between the greeks and persians. the persians consisted of about 100,000 men. they were completely defeated, many thousands of them killed, their camp burned, and the greeks triumphantly embarked their troops, and sailed to samos with an immense booty.
