the english farmer, as operated upon by modern causes and theories.

cobbett complains that the farmer has been spoiled by the growth of luxurious habits and effeminacy in the nation. that the simple old furniture is cast out of their houses; that carpets are laid on their floors; that there are sofas and pianos to be found where there used to be wooden benches and the spinning-wheel; that the daughters are sent to boarding-school, instead of to market; and the sons, instead of growing up sturdy husbandmen, like their fathers, are made clerks, shopkeepers, or some such “skimmy-dish things.”

it is true enough that the general style of living and furnishing has progressed amongst the farmers as amongst all other classes of the community. and perhaps there has been too much of this. but it should be recollected that cobbett was opposed to popular education altogether. he would have the rural population physically well off, but it should be physically only. he would have them feed and work and sleep like their sturdy horses or oxen: but is such a state desirable? is it not far more noble, far more truly human, to have all classes partaking, as far as their circumstances will allow them, of the pleasures of mind? i would have real knowledge go hand in hand with real religious principle and moral feeling, and where they go, a certain and inseparable degree of refinement of manner and embellishment of abode will[100] go with them. would i have the follies and affectations of the modern boarding-school go into the farm-house? by no means. it is by the circulation of healthful knowledge that all this is to be rooted out, and the race of finical and half-genteel, and wholly ridiculous boarding-school misses to be changed into usefully taught and really valuable and amiable women. we should avoid one extreme as the other.

it should be recollected, too, that amongst farmers are to be found men of all ranks and grades. farming has been, and is, a fashionable pursuit. we have ducal farmers, and from them all degrees downwards. gentlemen’s stewards, educated men, are farmers; and many farmers are persons whose capital employed in their extensive concerns would purchase the estates of nobles. all these, of course, live and partake of the habits, general character, and refinements of the classes to which they, by their wealth, really belong: and amongst the medium class of farmers we find as little aspiring of gentility, as amongst the same grade of tradesmen. nay, go into the really rural and retired parts of the country, and they are simple and rustic enough. let those who doubt it go into the dales of yorkshire; into the peak, and retirements of derbyshire; into the vales of nottinghamshire, and midland counties; let them traverse buckinghamshire and shropshire; let them go into the wild valleys of cornwall; ay, into the genuine country of almost any part of england, and they will find stone floors and naked tables, and pewter plates, and straw beds, and homely living enough in all conscience. they may see oxen ploughing in the fields with simple, heavy, wooden yokes, such as were used five hundred years ago; and horses harnessed with collars of straw, and an old rope or two, not altogether worth half-a-crown, doing the tillage of large farms. they may eat a turnip-pie in one place, and oatmeal cake, or an oatmeal pudding in another, and bless their stars if they see a bit of butcher’s meat once a week. yes, there are primitive living and primitive habits left over vast districts of england yet, which, we trust, under a better view of things, will receive no change, except such as springs from the gradual and sound growth of true knowledge.

but they bring up their sons to be clerks and such “skimmy-dish things” in towns. ay, there is the rub; and this we owe to[101] the rage for large rentals inspired by the war prices; by false notions of improvement generated during the heyday of farming prosperity; by gentlemen making stewards of lawyers, who have no real knowledge of farming interests, and can, therefore, have no sympathies with the small farmer, or patience with him in the day of his difficulty, and whose only object is to get the greatest rent at the easiest rate. but above all, this we owe to the detestable doctrine of political economy, by which a dozen of moderate farms are swallowed up in one overgrown one,—a desert, from which both small farmers and labourers were compelled to depart, to make way for machinery, and irish labourers at fourpence a day. where were the farmers to put their sons when they were brought up? the small farms, the natural resource for divided capitals and commencements in agricultural life, were, in a great measure, annihilated; and a most useful race of men as far as possible rooted out. thank god! this abomination and worse than egyptian plague, is now seen through, and what is better, is felt. we shall yet have farms from fifty to a hundred acres, where men of small capital may try their fortunes, and have a chance of mounting up, instead of being thrust down into the hopeless condition of serfs. we may have humble homesteads, where a father and his sons may work together; where labour may await their days, and an independent fireside their hours of rest. where a lowly, but a happy people may congregate at christmas and other festivals, and the old games of blindman’s-buff, turn-trencher, and forfeits, may long be pursued in the evening firelight of rustic rooms.

the farmer has had his ups and downs. during the war he was too prosperous; since then he has been at times ground to the dust by low prices and high rents. heaven send him a better day! we would see him as he is, in a healthy state of the country,—a rural king, sowing his corn and reaping his harvest with a glad heart, and amid the rejoicings of a numerous peasantry.

of the great advance in the science of farming; of the various improved modes of management, and ingenious machines invented for facilitating the farmer’s labours, i have spoken under the head of the country gentleman’s pursuits and recreations. one or two other observations on the farmer and his life, may as well be given here.

[102]

one of the greatest drawbacks to the pleasantness of their abodes, is to be found in their miry roads and yards, and the stagnant pools and drainages that, in the greater number of instances, stand somewhere about them. one would think that the latter nuisances were intended by them to neutralize the effects of so much good fresh air as they have; to act as a check, lest they should, surrounded as they are, by every conducive to health and longevity, really live too long. there is scarcely a farm-house but has one of those drain pools, into which all the liquid refuse of their yards runs, and into which dead dogs and cats find their way as a matter of course. in summer, these places are green over, and often stand thick with the bubbles of a pestiferous fermentation; to all which they appear totally insensible, and must be really so, or they would contrive to locate them at a greater distance, or have them carried in a water-cart, and dispersed over their grass lands, where they would be of infinite service.

it is in winter that they are beset by miry roads; and have often yards so deep in dirt, that you cannot reach them on foot without getting over the shoes. they and their men stalk to and fro through a six-inch depth of mire as if they trod on a turkey carpet; but i have often amused myself with imagining what would be the consternation of a cockney, or indeed of any townsman only accustomed to clean roads and good pavements, to find himself set down in the middle of one of those lanes that lead up to farm-houses, or away into their fields, or even in one of their fold-yards. but to find himself in one of these, as i have done many a time on a dark night, and with a necessity of proceeding,—oh patience! patience! then it is really felt to be a virtue. to slip, and plunge, and flounder on in such a darksome, deep-rutted, slipping and stick-fast road—sometimes the puddle soaking into your shoes, and sometimes sent by the pressure of your tread as from a squirt into your face:—“hic labor, hoc opus est.”

a few hours’ work now and then with an iron scraper in the yard, and a spade to let off the water in the lanes into the ditches, and the nuisance were prevented. one would have thought that the universal excellence of all the highways now would have made them sensible of the luxury of a good, dry footing; but they seem really quite unaware of it, except you point it out, and then they[103] will tell you in good humour that they have road-menders at work regularly twice a-year—dry weather and frost!

i must here, too, say a word on the subject of small farms. political economists, carrying out their theories of the power of capital, and the division of employments, have written many very plausible things in recommendation of large farms. they tell you that the men of capital, who alone can hold large farms, can alone afford to avail themselves of the aid of machinery for accelerating their operations; of expensive manures, such as bones, the ashes of bog-earth, such as are burnt in berks and wiltshire; and of new and improved breeds of sheep and cattle; all of which require long purses, that can pay, and wait for distant returns. these are all excellent reasons for having such men and such farms in the country, by which the march and spirit of improvement may be kept up, and from which, as from reservoirs, may, in due course, overflow the advantages they introduce to their less wealthy neighbours at a cheaper rate; but they are no arguments at all against the retention of less farms. it is, in fact, a well-known circumstance, that the speculative and amateur farmers generally farm at a greater expense than their neighbours, an expense, in most cases, never fully made up by the returns, and often really ruinous. that enlightened, systematic views, the division of employments, and a judicious outlay of capital, not always in every man’s power, enable large farmers to sell at a lower rate than smaller and poorer farmers, is to a certain degree true, but by no means to the extent supposed. no farm which exceeds the ready and daily survey of the cultivator will be found to produce these advantages. beyond that extent, there must be overlookers employed, and these must be maintained at a great, and probably greater cost than a small farmer lives at on his rented farm; nor can such a system be expected to carry the intentions of the principal into effect with a success like that of his personal surveillance. the small farmer has motives to exertion which do not exist in a troop of hired labourers. slave labour is notoriously inferior to the labour of freemen, because the freeman has internal motives that the slave never can have; and in the same manner a small farmer who labours on his own rented farm has motives to exertion that the common labourer, who labours for a daily sum, cannot have. if[104] the small farmer employ any of these, he employs them under the influence of his own eye and example, and thereby communicates a stimulus that is absent on a larger scale of cultivation. the small farmer lives economically; frequently, there is no question, more economically, and yet better than the labourer, because he has all his faculties and energies at work to improve his farm and better his condition; circumstances that do not operate on the labourer, who receives just a bare sufficiency in his wage, and sees no possibility, and therefore entertains no hope, of accumulation. the small farmer works hard himself; his children, if he have them, assist him, and his wife too, who also is a manager and a worker. he looks round him, for his eyes are sharpened by his interests, and observes the plans, and measures, and improvements of his wealthier neighbour, adopts what he can of them, and often makes cheap and ingenious substitutes for others. even if it were a fact, that the large farmer could drive the small farmer out of the country, it would be a circumstance most deeply to be deplored. it would extinguish a class of men of hardy, homely, and independent habits—a serious loss to the nation. it would break those steps out of the ladder of human aspiration, and the improvement of condition, that would have a most fatal influence on all society. an impassable gulf would be placed between the aristocracy of capital and the freedom of labour; which would produce, as its natural results, insolence, effeminacy, and corruption of manners, on the one side, and perpetual poverty, hopeless poverty, abjectness of spirit, or sullen and dangerous discontent, on the other. even if, as miss martineau, in her interesting stories, has asserted, it were true that the labourer would be better clothed and fed than the small farmer, would the mere comfort of food and clothes make up, to men living in a free and christian country, and within the daily reach of its influences, for the destruction of that ascending path which hope alone can travel? there would soon, on such a system, either in agriculture or manufactures, be but two classes in the country,—the great capitalist and the slave. the great capitalist would stand, like aaron armed with his serpent rod, to eat up all the lesser serpents that attempted to lift their heads above that level which he had condemned them to. the mass would be doomed to a perpetual despair of even advancing one step out of the thraldom of[105] labour and command, and their spirits would die within them, or live only to snatch and destroy what they could not legitimately reach.

but such, happily, is not the case. circumstances place a limit to such things. the small farmer can and does exist, and has existed, and in many cases, flourished too, in the face of all changes, and surrounded by large farms cultivated with all the skill of modern art, and all the power of capital. i have seen and known such, and happier and more comfortable people do not exist. i do not mean by a small farm, what miss martineau has called such,—some dozen acres—mere cottage allotments—but farms of from fifty to a hundred acres. there must be full employment for a pair of horses, or there is created by their keep an undue charge for labour, which is a serious preventive of success. but where there is that full employment, a small farmer may live and prosper. the political economist generally reasons in straight lines. he will not turn aside to calculate the force of incidental circumstances; and yet, these incidental circumstances frequently alter a question entirely. for instance, a small farm may lie near a large town, and thereby furnish the tenant with a very lucrative trade in milk; and such incidental circumstances, owing to a location favourable for market, and other causes, frequently exist. small farmers often pay attention to sources of profit, nearly, if not altogether, overlooked by larger ones. who does not know what sums are made by cottagers and small occupiers, of the produce of their gardens and orchards, by carefully looking after it, and some one of the family bringing it to market, and standing with it themselves; while the great farmer seldom looks very narrowly to the growth or preservation of either, and therefore incurs both badness of crop and waste; and if he sends it to market, he sends it to the huckster at a wholesale price, to save the annoyance of standing with it. small concerns, having small establishments, and no dignity to support, nor other cares to divert the attention, find in these resources alone frequently an income itself nearly equal to their expenditure.

to determine questions of this kind there requires a close examination into all their bearings, and into the habits and feelings of those concerned. the truth of the matter, as regards the[106] most profitable size of farms, and their general benefit to the public, seems to be, that there should be some of various sizes, that various degrees of capital and capacity of management may be accommodated; that there may be a chance for those beginning who have little to begin with, and a chance of the active and enterprising rising, as activity and enterprise should. this seems the only system by which the healthful temperament of a community can be kept up; and that just equilibrium of interests, and that ascending scale of advantages maintained, by which not merely the wealth, but the real happiness of a state is promoted.