it comes as something of a surprise to find that the niche reserved for ben jonson in the “english men of letters” series has only now been filled. one expected somehow that he would have been among the first of the great ones to be enshrined; but no, he has had a long time to wait; and adam smith, and sydney smith, and hazlitt, and fanny burney have gone before him into the temple of fame. now, however, his monument has at last been made, with professor gregory smith’s qualified version of “o rare ben jonson!” duly and definitively carved upon it.
what is it that makes us, almost as a matter of course, number ben jonson among the great? why should we expect him to be an early candidate for immortality, or why, indeed, should he be admitted to the “english men of letters” series at all? these are difficult questions to answer; for when we come to consider the matter we find ourselves unable to give any very glowing account of ben or his greatness. it is 178hard to say that one likes his work; one cannot honestly call him a good poet or a supreme dramatist. and yet, unsympathetic as he is, uninteresting as he often can be, we still go on respecting and admiring him, because, in spite of everything, we are conscious, obscurely but certainly, that he was a great man.
he had little influence on his successors; the comedy of humours died without any but an abortive issue. shadwell, the mountain-bellied “og, from a treason tavern rolling home,” is not a disciple that any man would have much pride in claiming. no raking up of literary history will make ben jonson great as a founder of a school or an inspirer of others. his greatness is a greatness of character. there is something almost alarming in the spectacle of this formidable figure advancing with tank-like irresistibility towards the goal he had set himself to attain. no sirens of romance can seduce him, no shock of opposition unseat him in his career. he proceeds along the course theoretically mapped out at the inception of his literary life, never deviating from this narrow way till the very end—till the time when, in his old age, he wrote that exquisite pastoral, the sad shepherd, which is so complete and absolute a denial of all his lifelong principles. 179but the sad shepherd is a weakness, albeit a triumphant weakness. ben, as he liked to look upon himself, as he has again and again revealed himself to us, is the artist with principles, protesting against the anarchic absence of principle among the geniuses and charlatans, the poets and ranters of his age.
the true artificer will not run away from nature as he were afraid of her; or depart from life and the likeness of truth; but speak to the capacity of his hearers. and though his language differ from the vulgar somewhat, it shall not fly from all humanity, with the tamerlanes and tamer-chams of the late age, which had nothing in them but the scenical strutting and furious vociferation to warrant them to the ignorant gapers. he knows it is his only art, so to carry it as none but artificers perceive it. in the meantime, perhaps, he is called barren, dull, lean, a poor writer, or by what contumelious word can come in their cheeks, by these men who without labour, judgment, knowledge, or almost sense, are received or preferred before him.
in these sentences from discoveries ben jonson paints his own picture—portrait of the artist as a true artificer—setting forth, in its most general form, and with no distracting details of the humours or the moral purpose of art, his own theory of the artist’s true function and nature. jonson’s theory was no idle speculation, no mere thing of words and air, but a creed, a principle, a 180categorical imperative, conditioning and informing his whole work. any study of the poet must, therefore, begin with the formulation of his theory, and must go on, as professor gregory smith’s excellent essay does indeed proceed, to show in detail how the theory was applied and worked out in each individual composition.
a good deal of nonsense has been talked at one time or another about artistic theories. the artist is told that he should have no theories, that he should warble native wood-notes wild, that he should “sing,” be wholly spontaneous, should starve his brain and cultivate his heart and spleen; that an artistic theory cramps the style, stops up the helicons of inspiration, and so on, and so on. the foolish and sentimental conception of the artist, to which these anti-intellectual doctrines are a corollary, dates from the time of romanticism and survives among the foolish and sentimental of to-day. a consciously practised theory of art has never spoiled a good artist, has never dammed up inspiration, but rather, and in most cases profitably, canalized it. even the romantics had theories and were wild and emotional on principle.
theories are above all necessary at moments when old traditions are breaking up, 181when all is chaos and in flux. at such moments an artist formulates his theory and clings to it through thick and thin; clings to it as the one firm raft of security in the midst of the surrounding unrest. thus, when the neo-classicism, of which ben was one of the remote ancestors, was crumbling into the nothingness of the loves of the plants and the triumphs of temper, wordsworth found salvation by the promulgation of a new theory of poetry, which he put into practice systematically and to the verge of absurdity in lyrical ballads. similarly in the shipwreck of the old tradition of painting we find the artists of the present day clinging desperately to intellectual formulas as their only hope in the chaos. the only occasions, in fact, when the artist can afford entirely to dispense with theory occur in periods when a well-established tradition reigns supreme and unquestioned. and then the absence of theory is more apparent than real; for the tradition in which he is working is a theory, originally formulated by someone else, which he accepts unconsciously and as though it were the law of nature itself.
the beginning of the seventeenth century was not one of these periods of placidity and calm acceptance. it was a moment of growth and decay together, of fermentation. the 182fabulous efflorescence of the renaissance had already grown rank. with that extravagance of energy which characterized them in all things, the elizabethans had exaggerated the traditions of their literature into insincerity. all artistic traditions end, in due course, by being reduced to the absurd; but the elizabethans crammed the growth and decline of a century into a few years. one after another they transfigured and then destroyed every species of art they touched. euphuism, petrarchism, spenserism, the sonnet, the drama—some lasted a little longer than others, but they all exploded in the end, these beautiful iridescent bubbles blown too big by the enthusiasm of their makers.
but in the midst of this unstable luxuriance voices of protest were to be heard, reactions against the main romantic current were discernible. each in his own way and in his own sphere, donne and ben jonson protested aganst the exaggerations of the age. at a time when sonneteers in legions were quibbling about the blackness of their ladies’ eyes or the golden wires of their hair, when platonists protested in melodious chorus that they were not in love with “red and white” but with the ideal and divine beauty of which peach-blossom complexions were but inadequate shadows, at a time when love-poetry 183had become, with rare exceptions, fantastically unreal, donne called it back, a little grossly perhaps, to facts with the dry remark:
love’s not so pure and abstract as they use
to say, who have no mistress but their muse.
there have been poets who have written more lyrically than donne, more fervently about certain amorous emotions, but not one who has formulated so rational a philosophy of love as a whole, who has seen all the facts so clearly and judged them so soundly. donne laid down no literary theory. his followers took from him all that was relatively unimportant—the harshness, itself a protest against spenserian facility, the conceits, the sensuality tempered by mysticism—but the important and original quality of donne’s work, the psychological realism, they could not, through sheer incapacity, transfer into their own poetry. donne’s immediate influence was on the whole bad. any influence for good he may have had has been on poets of a much later date.
the other great literary protestant of the time was the curious subject of our examination, ben jonson. like donne he was a realist. he had no use for claptrap, or rant, or romanticism. his aim was to give his 184audiences real facts flavoured with sound morality. he failed to be a great realist, partly because he lacked the imaginative insight to perceive more than the most obvious and superficial reality, and partly because he was so much preoccupied with the sound morality that he was prepared to sacrifice truth to satire; so that in place of characters he gives us humours, not minds, but personified moral qualities.
ben hated romanticism; for, whatever may have been his bodily habits, however infinite his capacity for drinking sack, he belonged intellectually to the party of sobriety. in all ages the drunks and the sobers have confronted one another, each party loud in derision and condemnation of the defects which it observes in the other. “the tamerlanes and tamer-chams of the late age” accuse the sober ben of being “barren, dull, lean, a poor writer.” ben retorts that they “have nothing in them but the scenical strutting and furious vociferation to warrant them to the ignorant gapers.” at another period it is the hernanis and the rollas who reproach that paragon of dryness, the almost fiendishly sober stendhal, with his grocer’s style. stendhal in his turn remarks: “en paraissant, vers 1803, le génie de chateaubriand m’a semblé ridicule.” and to-day? we have 185our sobers and our drunks, our hardy and our belloc, our santayana and our chesterton. the distinction is eternally valid. our personal sympathies may lie with one or the other; but it is obvious that we could dispense with neither. ben, then, was one of the sobers, protesting with might and main against the extravagant behaviour of the drunks, an intellectual insisting that there was no way of arriving at truth except by intellectual processes, an apotheosis of the plain man determined to stand no nonsense about anything. ben’s poetical achievement, such as it is, is the achievement of one who relied on no mysterious inspiration, but on those solid qualities of sense, perseverance, and sound judgment which any decent citizen of a decent country may be expected to possess. that he himself possessed, hidden somewhere in the obscure crypts and recesses of his mind, other rarer spiritual qualities is proved by the existence of his additions to the spanish tragedy—if, indeed, they are his, which there is no cogent reason to doubt—and his last fragment of a masterpiece, the sad shepherd. but these qualities, as professor gregory smith points out, he seems deliberately to have suppressed; locked them away, at the bidding of his imperious theory, in the strange dark places from which, at the 186beginning and the very end of his career, they emerged. he might have been a great romantic, one of the sublime inebriates; he chose rather to be classical and sober. working solely with the logical intellect and rejecting as dangerous the aid of those uncontrolled illogical elements of imagination, he produced work that is in its own way excellent. it is well-wrought, strong, heavy with learning and what the chaucerians would call “high sentence.” the emotional intensity and brevity excepted, it possesses all the qualities of the french classical drama. but the quality which characterizes the best elizabethan and indeed the best english poetry of all periods, the power of moving in two worlds at once, it lacks. jonson, like the french dramatists of the seventeenth century, moves on a level, directly towards some logical goal. the road over which his great contemporaries take us is not level; it is, as it were, tilted and uneven, so that as we proceed along it we are momently shot off at a tangent from the solid earth of logical meaning into superior regions where the intellectual laws of gravity have no control. the mistake of jonson and the classicists in general consists in supposing that nothing is of value that is not susceptible of logical analysis; whereas the truth is that 187the greatest triumphs of art take place in a world that is not wholly of the intellect, but lies somewhere between it and the inenarrable, but, to those who have penetrated it, supremely real, world of the mystic. in his fear and dislike of nonsense, jonson put away from himself not only the tamer-chams and the fustian of the late age, but also most of the beauty it had created.
with the romantic emotions of his predecessors and contemporaries jonson abandoned much of the characteristically elizabethan form of their poetry. that extraordinary melodiousness which distinguishes the elizabethan lyric is not to be found in any of ben’s writing. the poems by which we remember him—“cynthia,” “drink to me only,” “it is not growing like a tree”—are classically well made (though the cavalier lyrists were to do better in the same style); but it is not for any musical qualities that we remember them. one can understand ben’s critical contempt for those purely formal devices for producing musical richness in which the elizabethans delighted.
eyes, why did you bring unto me these graces,
grac’d to yield wonder out of her true measure,
measure of all joyes’ stay to phansie traces
module of pleasure.
188the device is childish in its formality, the words, in their obscurity, almost devoid of significance. but what matter, since the stanza is a triumph of sonorous beauty? the elizabethans devised many ingenuities of this sort; the minor poets exploited them until they became ridiculous; the major poets employed them with greater discretion, playing subtle variations (as in shakespeare’s sonnets) on the crude theme. when writers had something to say, their thoughts, poured into these copiously elaborate forms, were moulded to the grandest, poetical eloquence. a minor poet, like lord brooke, from whose works we have just quoted a specimen of pure formalism, could produce, in his moments of inspiration, such magnificent lines as:
the mind of man is this world’s true dimension,
and knowledge is the measure of the mind;
or these, of the nethermost hell:
a place there is upon no centre placed,
deepe under depthes, as farre as is the skie
above the earth; darke, infinitely spaced:
pluto the king, the kingdome, miserie.
even into comic poetry the elizabethans imported the grand manner. the anonymous author of
189tee-hee, tee-hee! oh sweet delight
he tickles this age, who can
call tullia’s ape a marmosite
and leda’s goose a swan,
knew the secret of that rich, facile music which all those who wrote in the grand elizabethan tradition could produce. jonson, like donne, reacted against the facility and floridity of this technique, but in a different way. donne’s protest took the form of a conceited subtlety of thought combined with a harshness of metre. jonson’s classical training inclined him towards clarity, solidity of sense, and economy of form. he stands, as a lyrist, half-way between the elizabethans and the cavalier song-writers; he has broken away from the old tradition, but has not yet made himself entirely at home in the new. at the best he achieves a minor perfection of point and neatness. at the worst he falls into that dryness and dulness with which he knew he could be reproached.
we have seen from the passage concerning the true artificer that jonson fully realized the risk he was running. he recurs more than once in discoveries to the same theme, “some men to avoid redundancy run into that [a “thin, flagging, poor, starved” style]; and while they strive to have no ill-blood 190or juice, they lose their good.” the good that jonson lost was a great one. and in the same way we see to-day how a fear of becoming sentimental, or “chocolate-boxy,” drives many of the younger poets and artists to shrink from treating of the great emotions or the obvious lavish beauty of the earth. but to eschew a good because the corruption of it is very bad is surely a sign of weakness and a folly.
having lost the realm of romantic beauty—lost it deliberately and of set purpose—ben jonson devoted the whole of his immense energy to portraying and reforming the ugly world of fact. but his reforming satiric intentions interfered, as we have already shown, with his realistic intentions, and instead of recreating in his art the actual world of men, he invented the wholly intellectual and therefore wholly unreal universe of humours. it is an odd new world, amusing to look at from the safe distance that separates stage from stalls; but not a place one could ever wish to live in—one’s neighbours, fools, knaves, hypocrites, and bears would make the most pleasing prospect intolerable. and over it all is diffused the atmosphere of jonson’s humour. it is a curious kind of humour, very different from anything that passes under that name to-day, 191from the humour of punch, or a kiss for cinderella. one has only to read volpone—or, better still, go to see it when it is acted this year by the ph?nix society for the revival of old plays—to realize that ben’s conception of a joke differed materially from ours. humour has never been the same since rousseau invented humanitarianism. syphilis and broken legs were still a great deal more comic in smollett’s day than in our own. there is a cruelty, a heartlessness about much of the older humour which is sometimes shocking, sometimes, in its less extreme forms, pleasantly astringent and stimulating after the orgies of quaint pathos and sentimental comedy in which we are nowadays forced to indulge. there is not a pathetic line in volpone; all the characters are profoundly unpleasant, and the fun is almost as grim as fun can be. its heartlessness is not the brilliant, cynical heartlessness of the later restoration comedy, but something ponderous and vast. it reminds us of one of those enormous, painful jokes which fate sometimes plays on humanity. there is no alleviation, no purging by pity and terror. it requires a very hearty sense of humour to digest it. we have reason to admire our ancestors for their ability to enjoy this kind of comedy as it should be enjoyed. 192it would get very little appreciation from a london audience of to-day.
in the other comedies the fun is not so grim; but there is a certain hardness and brutality about them all—due, of course, ultimately to the fact that the characters are not human, but rather marionettes of wood and metal that collide and belabour one another, like the ferocious puppets of the punch and judy show, without feeling the painfulness of the proceeding. shakespeare’s comedy is not heartless, because the characters are human and sensitive. our modern sentimentality is a corruption, a softening of genuine humanity. we need a few more jonsons and congreves, some more plays like volpone, or that inimitable marriage à la mode of dryden, in which the curtain goes up on a lady singing the outrageously cynical song that begins:
why should a foolish marriage vow,
that long ago was made,
constrain us to each other now
when pleasure is decayed?
too much heartlessness is intolerable (how soon one turns, revolted, from the literature of the restoration!), but a little of it now and then is bracing, a tonic for relaxed sensibilities. a little ruthless laughter clears 193the air as nothing else can do; it is good for us, every now and then, to see our ideals laughed at, our conception of nobility caricatured; it is good for solemnity’s nose to be tweaked, it is good for human pomposity to be made to look mean and ridiculous. it should be the great social function—as marinetti has pointed out—of the music halls, to provide this cruel and unsparing laughter, to make a buffoonery of all the solemnly accepted grandeurs and nobilities. a good dose of this mockery, administered twice a year at the equinoxes, should purge our minds of much waste matter, make nimble our spirits and brighten the eye to look more clearly and truthfully on the world about us.
ben’s reduction of human beings to a series of rather unpleasant humours is sound and medicinal. humours do not, of course, exist in actuality; they are true only as caricatures are true. there are times when we wonder whether a caricature is not, after all, truer than a photograph; there are others when it seems a stupid lie. but at all times a caricature is disquieting; and it is very good for most of us to be made uncomfortable.
