so far we have spoken only of the domestic training of a japanese girl. that part of her education that she gains through teachers and schools must be the subject of a separate chapter. japan differs from most oriental countries in the fact that her women are considered worthy of a certain amount of the culture that comes from the study of books; and although, until recently, schools for girls were unknown in the empire, nevertheless every woman, except those of the lower classes, received instruction in the ordinary written language, while some were well versed in the chinese classics and the poetic art. these, with some musical accomplishment, an acquaintance with etiquette and the arts of arranging flowers, of making the ceremonial tea, and in many cases not only of writing a beautiful hand, but of flower-painting as well, in the old days made up the whole of[38] an ordinary woman's education. among the lower classes, especially the merchant class, instruction was sometimes given in the various pantomimic dances which one sees most frequently presented by professional dancing girls. the art of dancing is not usually practiced by women of the higher classes, but among the daughters of the merchants special dances were learned for exhibition at home, or even at the matsuri or religious festival, and their performance was for the amusement of spectators, and not especially for the pleasure of the dancers themselves. these dances are modest and graceful, but from the fact that they are always learned for entertaining an audience, however small and select, and are most frequently performed by professional dancers of questionable character, the more refined and higher class japanese do not care especially to have their daughters learn them.

in the old days, little girls were not sent to school, but, going to the house of a private teacher, received the necessary instruction in reading, and writing. the writing and reading at the beginning, are taught simultaneously, the teacher writing[39] a letter upon a sheet of paper and telling the scholar its name, and the scholar writing it over and over until, by the time she has acquired the necessary skill in writing it, both name and form are indelibly imprinted upon her memory. to write, with a brush dipped in india ink, upon soft paper, the hand entirely without support, is an art that seldom can be acquired by a grown person, but when learned in childhood it gives great deftness in whatever other art may be subsequently studied. this is perhaps the reason why the japanese value a good handwriting more highly than any other accomplishment, for it denotes a manual dexterity that is the secret of success in all the arts, and one who writes the chinese characters well and rapidly can quickly learn to do anything else with the fingers.

the fault that one finds with the japanese system—a fault that lies deeper than the mere methods of teaching, and has its root in the ideographic character of the written language—is that, while it cultivates the memory and powers of observation to a remarkable extent, and while it gives great skill in the use of the fingers,[40] it affords little opportunity for the development of the reasoning powers.[8] the[41] years of study that are required for mastering the written language, so as to be able to grasp the thoughts already given to the world, leave comparatively little time for the conducting of any continuous thought on one's own account, and so we find in japanese scholars—whether boys or girls—quickness of apprehension, retentive memories, industry and method in their study of their lessons, but not much originality of thought. this result comes, i believe, from the nature of the written language and the difficulties that attend the mastery of it; as a consequence of which, an educated man or woman becomes simply a student of other men's thoughts and sayings about things instead of being a student of the things themselves.

music in japan is an accomplishment reserved almost entirely for women, for priests, and for blind men. it seems to me quite fortunate that the musical art is not more generally practiced, as japanese music, as a rule, is far from agreeable to the untrained ear of the outside barbarian.[*] the koto is the pleasantest of the japanese instruments, but probably on account of its large size, which makes it[42] inconvenient to keep in a small japanese house, it is used most among the higher classes, from the samurai[9] upwards. the koto is an embryo piano, a horizontal sounding-board, some six feet long, upon which are stretched strings supported by ivory bridges. it is played by means of ivory finger-tips fitted to the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the right hand, and gives forth agreeable sounds, not unlike those of the harp. the player sits before the koto on knees and heels, in the ordinary japanese attitude, and her motions are very graceful and pretty as she touches the strings, often supplementing the strains of the instrument with her voice. the teaching of this instrument and of the samisen, or japanese guitar, is almost entirely in the hands of blind men, who in japan support themselves by the two professions of music and massage,—all the blind, who cannot learn the former, becoming adepts in the latter profession.

the arrangement of flowers is taught as[43] a fine art, and much time may be spent in learning how, by clipping, bending, and fixing in its place in the vase, each spray and twig may be made to look as if actually growing, for flower arranging is not merely to show the flower itself, but includes the proper arrangement of the branches, twigs, and leaves of plants. the flower plays only a small part, and is not used in decoration, except on the branch and stem as it is in nature, and the art consists in the preservation of the natural bend and growth when fixed in the vase. in every case, each branch has certain curves, which must be in harmony with the whole. branches of pine, bamboo, and the flowering plum are much used.

teachers spend much time in showing proper and improper combinations of different flowers, as well as the arrangement of them. many different styles have come up, originated by the famous teachers who have founded various schools of the art,—an art which is unique and exceedingly popular, requiring artistic talent and a cultivated eye. one often sees, on going into the guest room of a japanese house, a vase containing gracefully arranged flowers [44]set in the tokonoma, or raised alcove of the room, under the solitary kakémono[10] that forms the chief ornament of the apartment. as these two things, the vase of flowers and the hanging scroll, are the only adornments, it is more necessary that the flowers should be carefully arranged, than in our crowded rooms, where a vase of flowers may easily escape the eye, perplexed by the multitude of objects which surround it.

the ceremonial tea must not be confounded with the ordinary serving of tea for refreshment. the proper making, and serving, and drinking of the ceremonial tea is the most formal of social observances, each step in which is prescribed by a rigid code of etiquette. the tea, instead of being the whole leaf, such as is used for ordinary occasions, is a fine, green powder. the infusion is made, not in a small pot, from which it is poured out into cups, but in a bowl, into which the hot water is poured from a dipper on to the powdered tea. the mixture is stirred with a bamboo whisk until it foams, then handed with[45] much ceremony to the guest, who takes it with equal ceremony and drinks it from the bowl, emptying the receptacle at three gulps. should there be a number of guests, tea is made for each in turn, in the order of their rank, in the same bowl. for this ceremonial tea, a special set of utensils is used, all of antique and severely simple style. the charcoal used for heating the water is of a peculiar variety; and the room in which the tea is made and served is built for that special purpose, and kept sacred for that use. this art, which is often part of the education of women of the higher classes, is taught by regular teachers, often by gentlewomen who have fallen into distressed circumstances.[*] i remember with great vividness a visit paid to an old lady living near a provincial city of japan, who had for years supported herself by giving lessons in this politest of arts. her little house, of the daintiest and neatest type, seemed filled to overflowing by three foreigners, whom she received with the courtliest of welcomes. at the request of my friend, an american lady engaged in missionary work in that part of the country, she gave us a lesson in the[46] etiquette of the tea ceremony. every motion, from the bringing in and arranging of the utensils to the final rinsing and wiping of the tea bowl, was according to rules strictly laid down, and the whole ceremony had more the solemnity of a religious ritual than the lightness and gayety of a social occasion.

etiquette of all kinds is not left in japan to chance, to be learned by observation and imitation of any model that may present itself, but is taught regularly by teachers who make a specialty of it. everything in the daily life has its rules, and the etiquette teacher has them all at her fingers' ends. there have been several famous teachers of etiquette, and they have formed systems which differ in minor points, while agreeing in the principal rules. the etiquette of bowing, the position of the body, the arms, and the head while saluting, the methods of shutting and opening the door, rising and sitting down on the floor, the manner of serving a meal, or tea, are all, with the minutest details, taught to the young girls, who, i imagine, find it rather irksome. i know two young girls of new japan who find nothing so wearisome as[47] their etiquette lesson, and would gladly be excused from it. i have heard them, after their teacher had left, slyly make fun of her stiff and formal manners. such people as she will, i fear, soon belong only to the past, though it still remains to be seen how much of european manners will be engrafted on the old formalities of japanese life. it is, perhaps, because of this regular teaching in the ways of polite society, that the japanese girl seems never at a loss, even under unusual circumstances, but bears herself with self-possession in places where young girls in america would be embarrassed and awkward.

but the japanese are rapidly finding out that this busy nineteenth century gives little time for learning how to shut and open doors in the politest manner, and indeed such things under the newly established school system are now relegated entirely to the girls' schools, the boys having no lessons in etiquette.

the method of teaching flower-painting is so interesting that i must speak of it before i leave the subject of accomplishments. i have said that the acquisition of skill in writing the chinese characters was[48] the best possible preparation for skill in all other arts. this is especially true of the art of painting, which is simply the next step, after writing has been learned. the painting master, when he comes to the house, brings no design as a model, but sits down on the floor before the little desk, and on a sheet of paper paints with great rapidity the design that he wishes the pupil to copy. it may be simply two or three blades of grass upon which the pupil makes a beginning, but she is expected to make her picture with exactly the same number of bold strokes that the master puts into his. again and again she blunders her strokes on to a sheet of paper, until at last, when sheet after sheet has been spoiled, she begins to see some semblance of the master's copy in her own daub. she perseveres, making copy after copy, until she is able from memory to put upon the paper at a moment's notice the three blades of grass to her master's satisfaction. only then can she go on to a new copy, and only after many such designs have been committed to memory, and the free, dashing stroke necessary for japanese painting has been acquired, is[49] she allowed to undertake any copying from nature, or original designing.[*]

i have dwelt thus far only upon the entirely japanese education that was permitted to women under the old régime. that it was an effective and refining system, all can testify who have made the acquaintance of any of the charming japanese ladies whose schooling was finished before commodore perry disturbed the repose of old japan. as i write, the image comes before me of a sweet-faced, bright-eyed little gentlewoman with whom it was my good fortune to become intimately acquainted during my stay in tokyo. a widow, left penniless, with one child to support, she earned the merest pittance by teaching sewing at one of the government schools in tokyo; but in all the circumstances of her life, narrow and busy as it needs must be, she proved herself a lady through and through. polite, cheerful, an intelligent and cultivated reader, a thrifty housekeeper, a loving and careful mother, a true and helpful friend, her memory is associated with many of my pleasantest hours in japan, and she is but one of the many who bear witness to the[50] culture that might be acquired by women in the old days.

but the japan of old is not the japan of to-day, and in the school system now prevalent throughout the empire girls and boys are equally provided for. first the schools established by the various missionary societies, and then the government schools, offered to girls a broader education than the old instruction in chinese, in etiquette, and in accomplishments. now, every morning, the streets of the cities and villages are alive with boys and girls clattering along, with their books and lunch boxes in their hands, to the kindergarten, primary, grammar, high, or normal school. every rank in life, every grade in learning, may find its proper place in the new school system, and the girls eagerly grasp their opportunities, and show themselves apt and willing students of the new learning offered to them.

by the new system, at its present stage of development, too much is expected of the japanese boy or girl. the work required would be a burden to the quickest mind. the whole of the old education in japanese and chinese literature and composition—an [51]education requiring the best years of a boy's life—is given, and grafted upon this, our common-school and high-school studies of mathematics, geography, history, and natural science. in addition to these, at all higher schools, one foreign language is required, and often two, english ranking first in the popular estimation. many a headache do the poor, hard-working students have over the puzzling english language, in which they have to begin at the wrong end of the book and read across the page from left to right, instead of from top to bottom, and from right to left, as is natural to them. but in spite of its hard work, the new school life is cheerful and healthful, and the children enjoy it. it helps them to be really children, and, while they are young, to be merry and playful, not dignified and formal little ladies at all times. upon the young girls, the influence of the schools is to make them more independent, self-reliant, and stronger women. in the houses of the higher classes, even now, much of the old-time system of repression is still in force. children are indeed "seen but not heard," and from the time when they[52] learn to walk they must learn to be polite and dignified. at school, the more progressive feeling of the times predominates among the authorities, and the children are encouraged to unbend and enjoy themselves in games and frolics, as true children should do. much is done for the pleasure of the little ones, who often enjoy school better than home, and declare that they do not like holidays.[*]

but the young girl, who has finished this pleasant school life, with all its advantages, is not as well fitted as under the old system for the duties and trials of married life, unless under exceptional circumstances, where the husband chosen has advanced ideas. to those teaching the young girls of japan to-day, the problem of how to educate them aright is a deep one, and with each newly trained girl sent out go many hopes, mingled with anxieties, in regard to the training she has had as a preparation for the new life she is about to enter. the few, the pioneers, will have to suffer for the happiness and good of the many, for the problem of grafting the new on to the old is indeed a difficult one, to be solved only after many experiments.

[53]

there are many difficulties which lie in the way of the new schools that must be met, studied, and overcome. one of them is the one already referred to, the problem of how best to combine the new and the old in the school curriculum. that the old learning and literature, the old politeness and sweetness of manner, must not be given up or made little of, is evident to every right-minded student of the matter. that the newer and broader culture, with its higher morality, its greater development of the best powers of the mind, must play a large part in the japan of the future, there is not a shadow of doubt, and the women must not be left behind in the onward movement of the nation. but how to give to the young minds the best products of the thought of two such distinct civilizations is a question that is as yet unanswered, and cannot be satisfactorily settled until the effect of the new education has begun to show itself in a generation or so of graduates from the new schools. another difficulty is in the matter of health. most of the new school-houses are fitted with seats and desks, such as are found in american schools. many of them are[54] heated by stoves or furnaces. the scholars in most cases wear the japanese dress, which in winter is made warm enough to be worn in rooms having no artificial heat. put this warm costume into an artificially heated room and the result is an over-heating of the body, and a subsequent chill when the pupil goes, with no extra covering, into the keen out-of-door air. from this cause alone, arise many colds and lung troubles, which can be prevented when more experience has shown how the costumes of the east and west can be combined to suit the new conditions. another part of the health problem lies in the fact that in many cases the parents do not understand the proper care of a growing girl, ambitious to excel in her studies. instead of the regular hours, healthful food, and gentle restraint that a girl needs under those circumstances, our little japanese maiden is allowed to sit up to any hour of the night, or arise at any hour in the morning, to prepare her lessons, is given food of most indigestible quality at all hours of the day between her regular meals, and is frequently urged to greater mental exertion than her delicate body can endure.

[55]

another difficulty, in fitting the new school system into the customs of the people, lies in the early age at which marriages are contracted. before the girl has finished her school course, her parents begin to wonder whether there is not danger of her being left on their hands altogether, if they do not hand her over to the first eligible young man who presents himself. sometimes the girl makes a brave fight, and remains in school until her course is finished; more often she succumbs and is married off, bids a weeping farewell to her teachers and schoolmates, and leaves the school, to become a wife at sixteen, a mother at eighteen, and an old woman at thirty. in some cases, the breaking down of a girl's health may be traced to threats on the part of her parents that, if she does not take a certain rank in her studies, she will be taken from school and married off.[*]

these are difficulties that may be overcome when a generation has been educated who can, as parents, avoid the mistakes that now endanger the health of a japanese school-girl. in the mean time, boarding schools, that can attend to matters of health and hygiene among the girls, would,[56] if they could be conducted with the proper admixture of eastern and western learning and manners, do a great deal toward educating that generation. the missionary schools do much in this direction, but the criticism of the japanese upon the manners of the girls educated in missionary schools is universally severe. to a foreigner who has lived almost entirely among japanese ladies of pure japanese education, the manners of the girls in these schools seem brusque and awkward; and though they are many of them noble women and doing noble work, there is room for hope that in the future of japan the charm of manner which is the distinguishing feature of the japanese woman will not be lost by contact with our western shortness and roughness. a happy mean undoubtedly can be reached; and when it is, the women of new japan will be able to bear a not unfavorable comparison with the women of the old régime.

footnotes:

[8] the japanese written language is a strange combination of chinese and japanese, to read which a knowledge of the chinese characters is necessary. chinese literature written in the chinese ideographs, which of course give no clue to the sound, are read by japanese with the japanese rendering of the words, and the japanese order of words in the sentence. when there have not been exact equivalent japanese words, a chinese term has come into use, so that much corrupt chinese is now well engrafted into the japanese language, both written and spoken. in the forming of new words and technical terms chinese words are used, as the greek and latin are here. there is probably no similarity in the origin of the two languages, but the japanese borrowed from the chinese about the sixth century a. d. their cleverly planned but most complex method of expressing thought in writing. the introduction of the chinese literature has done much for japan, and to master this language is one of the essentials in the education of every boy. at least seven or eight thousand characters must be learned for daily use, and there are several different styles of writing each of them. for a scholar, twice as many, or even more, must be mastered in order to read the various works in that rich literature.

the japanese language contains a syllabary of forty-eight letters, and in books and newspapers for the common people is printed, by the side of the chinese character, the rendering of it, in the letters of the kana, or japanese alphabet.[*]

a japanese woman is not expected to do much in the study of chinese. she will, of course, learn a few of the most common characters, such as are used in letter-writing, and for the rest she will read by the help of the kana.

[9] the samurai in the feudal times were the hereditary retainers of a daimio, or feudal lord. they formed the military and literary class. for further information, see chap. viii., on samurai women.

[10] kakémono, a hanging scroll, upon which a picture is painted, or some poem or sentiment written.