criticism is an art that undergoes a great variety of changes, and aims at different objects at different times.

at first, it is generally satisfied to give an opinion whether a work is good or bad, and to quote a passage or two in support of this opinion: afterwards, it is bound to assign the reasons of its decision and to analyse supposed beauties or defects with microscopic minuteness. a critic does nothing nowadays who does not try to torture the most obvious expression into a thousand meanings, and enter into a circuitous explanation of all that can be urged for or against its being in the best or worst style possible. his object indeed is not to do justice to his author, whom he treats with very little ceremony, but to do himself homage, and to show his acquaintance with all the topics and resources of criticism. if he recurs to the stipulated subject in the end, it is not till after he has exhausted his budget of general knowledge; and he establishes his own claims first in an elaborate inaugural dissertation de omni scibile et quibusdam aliis, before he deigns to bring forward the pretensions of the original candidate for praise, who is only the second figure in the piece. we may sometimes see articles of this sort, in which no allusion whatever is made to the work under sentence of death, after the first announcement of the title-page; and i apprehend it would be a clear improvement on this species of nominal criticism to give stated periodical accounts of works that had never appeared at all, which would save the hapless author the mortification of writing, and his reviewer the trouble of reading them. if the real author is made of so little account by the modern critic, he is scarcely more an object of regard to the modern reader; and it must be confessed that after a dozen close-packed pages of subtle metaphysical distinction or solemn didactic declamation, in which the disembodied principles of all arts and sciences float before the imagination in undefined profusion, the eye turns with impatience and indifference to the imperfect embryo specimens of them, and the hopeless attempts to realise this splendid jargon in one poor work by one poor author, which is given up to summary execution with as little justice as pity. ‘as when a well-graced actor leaves the stage, men’s eyes are idly bent on him that enters next’— so it is here. whether this state of the press is not a serious abuse and a violent encroachment in the republic of letters, is more than i shall pretend to determine. the truth is, that in the quantity of works that issue from the press, it is utterly impossible they should all be read by all sorts of people. there must be tasters for the public, who must have a discretionary power vested in them, for which it is difficult to make them properly accountable. authors in proportion to their numbers become not formidable, but despicable. they would not be heard of or severed from the crowd without the critic’s aid, and all complaints of ill-treatment are vain. he considers them as pensioners on his bounty for any pittance or praise, and in general sets them up as butts for his wit and spleen, or uses them as a stalking-horse to convey his own favourite notions and opinions, which he can do by this means without the possibility of censure or appeal. he looks upon his literary protege (much as peter pounce looked upon parson adams) as a kind of humble companion or unnecessary interloper in the vehicle of fame, whom he has taken up purely to oblige him, and whom he may treat with neglect or insult, or set down in the common footpath, whenever it suits his humour or convenience. he naturally grows arbitrary with the exercise of power. he by degrees wants to have a clear stage to himself, and would be thought to have purchased a monopoly of wit, learning, and wisdom —

assumes the rod, affects the god,

and seems to shake the spheres.

besides, something of this overbearing manner goes a great way with the public. they cannot exactly tell whether you are right or wrong; and if you state your difficulties or pay much deference to the sentiments of others, they will think you a very silly fellow or a mere pretender. a sweeping, unqualified assertion ends all controversy, and sets opinion at rest. a sharp, sententious, cavalier, dogmatical tone is therefore necessary, even in self-defence, to the office of a reviewer. if you do not deliver your oracles without hesitation, how are the world to receive them on trust and without inquiry? people read to have something to talk about, and ‘to seem to know that which they do not.’ consequently, there cannot be too much dialectics and debatable matter, too much pomp and paradox, in a review. to elevate and surprise is the great rule for producing a dramatic or critical effect. the more you startle the reader, the more he will be able to startle others with a succession of smart intellectual shocks. the most admired of our reviews is saturated with this sort of electrical matter, which is regularly played off so as to produce a good deal of astonishment and a strong sensation in the public mind. the intrinsic merits of an author are a question of very subordinate consideration to the keeping up the character of the work and supplying the town with a sufficient number of grave or brilliant topics for the consumption of the next three months!

this decided and paramount tone in criticism is the growth of the present century, and was not at all the fashion in that calm, peaceable period when the monthly review bore ‘sole sovereign sway and masterdom’ over all literary productions. though nothing can be said against the respectability or usefulness of that publication during its long and almost exclusive enjoyment of the public favour, yet the style of criticism adopted in it is such as to appear slight and unsatisfactory to a modern reader. the writers, instead of ‘outdoing termagant or out-heroding herod,’ were somewhat precise and prudish, gentle almost to a fault, full of candour and modesty,

and of their port as meek as is a maid!66

there was none of that drawcansir work going on then that there is now; no scalping of authors, no hacking and hewing of their lives and opinions, except that they used those of tristram shandy, gent., rather scurvily; which was to be expected. all, however, had a show of courtesy and good manners. the satire was covert and artfully insinuated; the praise was short and sweet. we meet with no oracular theories; no profound analysis of principles; no unsparing exposure of the least discernible deviation from them. it was deemed sufficient to recommend the work in general terms, ‘this is an agreeable volume,’ or ‘this is a work of great learning and research,’ to set forth the title and table of contents, and proceed without farther preface to some appropriate extracts, for the most part concurring in opinion with the author’s text, but now and then interposing an objection to maintain appearances and assert the jurisdiction of the court. this cursory manner of hinting approbation or dissent would make but a lame figure at present. we must have not only an announcement that ‘this is an agreeable or able work’; but we must have it explained at full length, and so as to silence all cavillers, in what the agreeableness or ability of the work consists: the author must be reduced to a class, all the living or defunct examples of which must be characteristically and pointedly differenced from one another; the value of this class of writing must be developed and ascertained in comparison with others; the principles of taste, the elements of our sensations, the structure of the human faculties, all must undergo a strict scrutiny and revision. the modern or metaphysical system of criticism, in short, supposes the question, why? to be repeated at the end of every decision; and the answer gives birth to interminable arguments and discussion. the former laconic mode was well adapted to guide those who merely wanted to be informed of the character and subject of a work in order to read it: the present is more useful to those whose object is less to read the work than to dispute upon its merits, and go into company clad in the whole defensive and offensive armour of criticism.

neither are we less removed at present from the dry and meagre mode of dissecting the skeletons of works, instead of transfusing their living principles, which prevailed in dryden’s prefaces,67 and in the criticisms written on the model of the french school about a century ago. a genuine criticism should, as i take it, reflect the colours, the light and shade, the soul and body of a work: here we have nothing but its superficial plan and elevation, as if a poem were a piece of formal architecture. we are told something of the plot or fable, of the moral, and of the observance or violation of the three unities of time, place, and action; and perhaps a word or two is added on the dignity of the persons or the baldness of the style; but we no more know, after reading one of these complacent tirades, what the essence of the work is, what passion has been touched, or how skilfully, what tone and movement the author’s mind imparts to his subject or receives from it, than if we had been reading a homily or a gazette. that is, we are left quite in the dark as to the feelings of pleasure or pain to be derived from the genius of the performance or the manner in which it appeals to the imagination: we know to a nicety how it squares with the threadbare rules of composition, not in the least how it affects the principles of taste. we know everything about the work, and nothing of it. the critic takes good care not to baulk the reader’s fancy by anticipating the effect which the author has aimed at producing. to be sure, the works so handled were often worthy of their commentators; they had the form of imagination without the life or power; and when any one had gone regularly through the number of acts into which they were divided, the measure in which they were written, or the story on which they were founded, there was little else to be said about them. it is curious to observe the effect which the paradise lost had on this class of critics, like throwing a tub to a whale: they could make nothing of it. ‘it was out of all plumb — not one of the angles at the four corners was a right angle!’ they did not seek for, nor would they much relish, the marrow of poetry it contained. like polemics in religion, they had discarded the essentials of fine writing for the outward form and points of controversy. they were at issue with genius and nature by what route and in what garb they should enter the temple of the muses. accordingly we find that dryden had no other way of satisfying himself of the pretensions of milton in the epic style but by translating his anomalous work into rhyme and dramatic dialogue.68 so there are connoisseurs who give you the subject, the grouping, the perspective, and all the mechanical circumstances of a picture; but they never say a word about the expression. the reason is, they see the former, but not the latte taking an inventory of works of art (they want a faculty for higher studies), as there are works of art, so called, which seemed to have been composed expressly with an eye to such a class of connoisseurs. in them are to be found no recondite nameless beauties thrown away upon the stupid vulgar gaze; no ‘graces snatched beyond the reach of art’; nothing but what the merest pretender may note down in good set terms in his common-place book, just as it is before him. place one of these half-informed, imperfectly organised spectators before a tall canvas with groups on groups of figures, of the size of life, and engaged in a complicated action, of which they know the name and all the particulars, and there are no bounds to their burst of involuntary enthusiasm. they mount on the stilts of the subject and ascend the highest heaven of invention, from whence they see sights and hear revelations which they communicate with all the fervour of plenary explanation to those who may be disposed to attend to their raptures. they float with wings expanded in lofty circles, they stalk over the canvas at large strides, never condescending to pause at anything of less magnitude than a group or a colossal figure. the face forms no part of their collective inquiries; or so that it occupies only a sixth or an eighth proportion to the whole body, all is according to the received rules of composition. point to a divine portrait of titian, to an angelic head of guido, close by — they see and heed it not. what are the ‘looks commercing with the skies,’ the soul speaking in the face, to them? it asks another and an inner sense to comprehend them; but for the trigonometry of painting, nature has constituted them indifferently well. they take a stand on the distinction between portrait and history, and there they are spell-bound. tell them that there can be no fine history without portraiture, that the painter must proceed from that ground to the one above it, and that a hundred bad heads cannot make one good historical picture, and they will not believe you, though the thing is obvious to any gross capacity. their ideas always fly to the circumference, and never fix at the centre. art must be on a grand scale; according to them, the whole is greater than a part, and the greater necessarily implies the less. the outline is, in this view of the matter, the same thing as the filling-up, and ‘the limbs and flourishes of a discourse’ the substance. again, the same persons make an absolute distinction, without knowing why, between high and low subjects. say that you would as soon have murillo’s two beggar boys at the dulwich gallery as almost any picture in the world, that is, that it would be one you would choose out of ten (had you the choice), and they reiterate upon you that surely a low subject cannot be of equal value with a high one. it is in vain that you turn to the picture: they keep to the class. they have eyes, but see not; and, upon their principles of refined taste, would be just as good judges of the merit of the picture without seeing it as with that supposed advantage. they know what the subject is from the catalogue!— yet it is not true, as lord byron asserts, that execution is everything, and the class or subject nothing. the highest subjects, equally well executed (which, however, rarely happens), are the best. but the power of execution, the manner of seeing nature, is one thing, and may be so superlative (if you are only able to judge of it) as to countervail every disadvantage of subject. raphael’s storks in the miraculous draught of fishes, exulting in the event, are finer than the head of christ would have been in almost any other hands. the cant of criticism is on the other side of the question; because execution depends on various degrees of power in the artist, and a knowledge of it on various degrees of feeling and discrimination in you; but to commence artist or connoisseur in the grand style at once, without any distinction of qualifications whatever, it is only necessary for the first to choose his subject and for the last to pin his faith on the sublimity of the performance, for both to look down with ineffable contempt on the painters and admirers of subjects of low life. i remember a young scotchman once trying to prove to me that mrs. dickons was a superior singer to miss stephens, because the former excelled in sacred music and the latter did not. at that rate, that is, if it is the singing sacred music that gives the preference, miss stephens would only have to sing sacred music to surpass herself and vie with her pretended rival; for this theory implies that all sacred music is equally good, and, therefore, better than any other. i grant that madame catalani’s singing of sacred music is superior to miss stephens’s ballad-strains, because her singing is better altogether, and an ocean of sound more wonderful than a simple stream of dulcet harmonies. in singing the last verse of ‘god save the king’ not long ago her voice towered above the whole confused noise of the orchestra like an eagle piercing the clouds, and poured ‘such sweet thunder’ through the ear as excited equal astonishment and rapture!

some kinds of criticism are as much too insipid as others are too pragmatical. it is not easy to combine point with solidity, spirit with moderation and candour. many persons see nothing but beauties in a work, others nothing but defects. those cloy you with sweets, and are ‘the very milk of human kindness,’ flowing on in a stream of luscious panegyrics; these take delight in poisoning the sources of your satisfaction, and putting you out of conceit with nearly every author that comes in their way. the first are frequently actuated by personal friendship, the last by all the virulence of party spirit. under the latter head would fall what may be termed political criticism. the basis of this style of writing is a caput mortuum of impotent spite and dulness, till it is varnished over with the slime of servility, and thrown into a state of unnatural activity by the venom of the most rancorous bigotry. the eminent professors in this grovelling department are at first merely out of sorts with themselves, and vent their spleen in little interjections and contortions of phrase — cry pish at a lucky hit, and hem at a fault, are smart on personal defects, and sneer at ‘beauty out of favour and on crutches’— are thrown into an ague-fit by hearing the name of a rival, start back with horror at any approach to their morbid pretensions, like justice woodcock with his gouty limbs — rifle the flowers of the della cruscan school, and give you in their stead, as models of a pleasing pastoral style, verses upon anna — which you may see in the notes to the baviad and maeviad. all this is like the fable of ‘the kitten and the leaves.’ but when they get their brass collar on and shake their bells of office, they set up their backs like the great cat rodilardus, and pounce upon men and things. woe to any little heedess reptile of an author that ventures across their path without a safe-conduct from the board of control. they snap him up at a mouthful, and sit licking their lips, stroking their whiskers, and rattling their bells over the imaginary fragments of their devoted prey, to the alarm and astonishment of the whole breed of literary, philosophical, and revolutionary vermin that were naturalised in this country by a prince of orange and an elector of hanover a hundred years ago.69 when one of these pampered, sleek, ‘demure-looking, spring-nailed, velvet-pawed, green-eyed’ critics makes his king and country parties to this sort of sport literary, you have not much chance of escaping out of his clutches in a whole skin. treachery becomes a principle with them, and mischief a conscience, that is, a livelihood. they not only damn the work in the lump, but vilify and traduce the author, and substitute lying abuse and sheer malignity for sense and satire. to have written a popular work is as much as a man’s character is worth, and sometimes his life, if he does not happen to be on the right side of the question. the way in which they set about stultifying an adversary is not to accuse you of faults, or to exaggerate those which you may really have, but they deny that you have any merits at all, least of all those that the world have given you credit for; bless themselves from understanding a single sentence in a whole volume; and unless you are ready to subscribe to all their articles of peace, will not allow you to be qualified to write your own name. it is not a question of literary discussion, but of political proscription. it is a mark of loyalty and patriotism to extend no quarter to those of the opposite party. instead of replying to your arguments, they call you names, put words and opinions into your mouth which you have never uttered, and consider it a species of misprision of treason to admit that a whig author knows anything of common sense or english. the only chance of putting a stop to this unfair mode of dealing would perhaps be to make a few reprisals by way of example. the court party boast some writers who have a reputation to lose, and who would not like to have their names dragged through the kennel of dirty abuse and vulgar obloquy. what silenced the masked battery of blackwood’s magazine was the implication of the name of sir walter scott in some remarks upon it —(an honour of which it seems that extraordinary person was not ambitious)— to be ‘pilloried on infamy’s high stage’ was a distinction and an amusement to the other gentlemen concerned in that praiseworthy publication. i was complaining not long ago of this prostitution of literary criticism as peculiar to our own times, when i was told that it was just as bad in the time of pope and dryden, and indeed worse, inasmuch as we have no popes or drydens now on the obnoxious side to be nicknamed, metamorphosed into scarecrows, and impaled alive by bigots and dunces. i shall not pretend to say how far this remark may be true. the english (it must be owned) are rather a foul-mouthed nation.

besides temporary or accidental biases of this kind, there seem to be sects and parties in taste and criticism (with a set of appropriate watchwords) coeval with the arts of composition, and that will last as long as the difference with which men’s minds are originally constituted. there are some who are all for the elegance of an author’s style, and some who are equally delighted with simplicity. the last refer you to swift as a model of english prose, thinking all other writers sophisticated and naught; the former prefer the more ornamented and sparkling periods of junius or gibbon. it is to no purpose to think of bringing about an understanding between these opposite factions. it is a natural difference of temperament and constitution of mind. the one will never relish the antithetical point and perpetual glitter of the artificial prose style; as the plain, unperverted english idiom will always appear trite and insipid to the others. a toleration, not an uniformity of opinion, is as much as can be expected in this case; and both sides may acknowledge, without imputation on their taste or consistency, that these different writers excelled each in their way. i might remark here that the epithet elegant is very sparingly used in modern criticism. it has probably gone out of fashion with the appearance of the lake school, who, i apprehend, have no such phrase in their vocabulary. mr. rogers was, i think, almost the last poet to whom it was applied as a characteristic compliment. at present it would be considered as a sort of diminutive of the title of poet, like the terms pretty or fanciful, and is banished from the haut ton of letters. it may perhaps come into request at some future period. again, the dispute between the admirers of homer and virgil has never been settled and never will, for there will always be minds to whom the excellences of virgil will be more congenial, and therefore more objects of admiration and delight than those of homer, and vice versa. both are right in preferring what suits them best, the delicacy and selectness of the one, or the fulness and majestic flow of the other. there is the same difference in their tastes that there was in the genius of their two favourites. neither can the disagreement between the french and english school of tragedy ever be reconciled till the french become english or the english french.70 both are right in what they admire, both are wrong in condemning the others for what they admire. we see the defects of racine, they see the faults of shakespear probably in an exaggerated point of view. but we may be sure of this, that when we see nothing but grossness and barbarism, or insipidity and verbiage, in a writer that is the god of a nation’s idolatry, it is we and not they who want true taste and feeling. the controversy about pope and the opposite school in our own poetry comes to much the same thing. pope’s correctness, smoothness, etc., are very good things and much to be commended in him. but it is not to be expected or even desired that others should have these qualities in the same paramount degree, to the exclusion of everything else. if you like correctness and smoothness of all things in the world, there they are for you in pope. if you like other things better, such as strength and sublimity, you know where to go for them. why trouble pope or any other author for what they have not, and do not profess to give? those who seem to imply that pope possessed, besides his own peculiar, exquisite merits, all that is to be found in shakespear or milton, are, i should hardly think, in good earnest. but i do not therefore see that, because this was not the case, pope was no poet. we cannot by a little verbal sophistry confound the qualities of different minds, nor force opposite excellences into a union by all the intolerance in the world. we may pull pope in pieces as long as we please for not being shakespear or milton, as we may carp at them for not being pope, but this will not make a poet equal to all three. if we have a taste for some one precise style or manner, we may keep it to ourselves and let others have theirs. if we are more catho and beauty, it is spread abroad for us to profusion in the variety of books and in the several growth of men’s minds, fettered by no capricious or arbitrary rules. those who would proscribe whatever falls short of a given standard of imaginary perfection do so, not from a higher capacity of taste or range of intellect than others, but to destroy, to ‘crib and cabin in’ all enjoyments and opinions but their own.

we find people of a decided and original, and others of a more general and versatile taste. i have sometimes thought that the most acute and original-minded men made bad critics. they see everything too much through a particular medium. what does not fall in with their own bias and mode of composition strikes them as common-place and factitious. what does not come into the direct line of their vision, they regard idly, with vacant, ‘lack-lustre eye.’ the extreme force of their original impressions, compared with the feebleness of those they receive at second-hand from others, oversets the balance and just proportion of their minds. men who have fewer native resources, and are obliged to apply oftener to the general stock, acquire by habit a greater aptitude in appreciating what they owe to others. their taste is not made a sacrifice to their egotism and vanity, and they enrich the soil of their minds with continual accessions of borrowed strength and beauty. i might take this opportunity of observing, that the person of the most refined and least contracted taste i ever knew was the late joseph fawcett, the friend of my youth. he was almost the first literary acquaintance i ever made, and i think the most candid and unsophisticated. he had a masterly perception of all styles and of every kind and degree of excellence, sublime or beautiful, from milton’s paradise lost to shenstone’s pastoral ballad, from butler’s analogy down to humphrey clinker. if you had a favourite author, he had read him too, and knew all the best morsels, the subtle traits, the capital touches. ‘do you like sterne?’ ‘yes, to be sure,’ he would say; ‘i should deserve to be hanged if i didn’t!’ his repeating some parts of comus with his fine, deep, mellow-toned voice, particularly the lines, ‘i have heard my mother circe with the sirens three,’ etc., and the enthusiastic comments he made afterwards, were a feast to the ear and to the soul. he read the poetry of milton with the same fervour and spirit of devotion that i have since heard others read their own. ‘that is the most delicious feeling of all,’ i have heard him explain, ‘to like what is excellent, no matter whose it is.’ in this respect he practised what he preached. he was incapable of harbouring a sinister motive, and judged only from what he felt. there was no flaw or mist in the clear mirror of his mind. he was as open to impressions as he was strenuous in maintaining them. he did not care a rush whether a writer was old or new, in prose or in verse —‘what he wanted,’ he said, ‘was something to make him think.’ most men’s minds are to me like musical instruments out of tune. touch a particular key, and it jars and makes harsh discord with your own. they like gil blas, but can see nothing to laugh at in don quixote: they adore richardson, but are disgusted with fielding. fawcett had a taste accommodated to all these. he was not exceptious. he gave a cordial welcome to all sort, provided they were the best in their kind. he was not fond of counterfeits or duplicates. his own style was laboured and artificial to a fault, while his character was frank and ingenuous in the extreme. he was not the only individual whom i have known to counteract their natural disposition in coming before the public, and by avoiding what they perhaps thought an inherent infirmity, debar themselves of their real strength and advantages. a heartier friend or honester critic i never coped withal. he has made me feel (by contrast) the want of genuine sincerity and generous sentiment in some that i have listened to since, and convinced me (if practical proof were wanting) of the truth of that text of scripture —‘that had i all knowledge and could speak with the tongues of angels, yet without charity i were nothing!’ i would rather be a man of disinterested taste and liberal feeling, to see and acknowledge truth and beauty wherever i found it, than a man of greater and more original genius, to hate, envy, and deny all excellence but my own — but that poor scanty pittance of it (compared with the whole) which i had myself produced!

there is another race of critics who might be designated as the occult school—vere adepti. they discern no beauties but what are concealed from superficial eyes, and overlook all that are obvious to the vulgar part of mankind. their art is the transmutation of styles. by happy alchemy of mind they convert dross into gold — and gold into tinsel. they see farther into a millstone than most others. if an author is utterly unreadable, they can read him for ever: his intricacies are their delight, his mysteries are their study. they prefer sir thomas browne to the rambler by dr. johnson, and burton’s anatomy of melancholy to all the writers of the georgian age. they judge of works of genius as misers do of hid treasure — it is of no value unless they have it all to themselves. they will no more share a book than a mistress with a friend. if they suspected their favourite volumes of delighting any eyes but their own, they would immediately discard them from the list. theirs are superannuated beauties that every one else has left off intriguing with, bedridden hags, a ‘stud of nightmares.’ this is not envy or affectation, but a natural proneness to singularity, a love of what is odd and out of the way. they must come at their pleasures with difficulty, and support admiration by an uneasy sense of ridicule and opposition. they despise those qualities in a work which are cheap and obvious. they like a monopoly of taste and are shocked at the prostitution of intellect implied in popular productions. in like manner, they would choose a friend or recommend a mistress for gross defects; and tolerate the sweetness of an actress’s voice only for the ugliness of her face. pure pleasures are in their judgment cloying and insipid —

an ounce of sour is worth a pound of sweet!

nothing goes down with them but what is caviare to the multitude. they are eaters of olives and readers of black-letter. yet they smack of genius, and would be worth any money, were it only for the rarity of the thing!

the last sort i shall mention are verbal critics— mere word-catchers, fellows that pick out a word in a sentence and a sentence in a volume, and tell you it is wrong.71 these erudite persons constantly find out by anticipation that you are deficient in the smallest things — that you cannot spell certain words or join the nominative case and the verb together, because to do this is the height of their own ambition, and of course they must set you down lower than their opinion of themselves. they degrade by reducing you to their own standard of merit; for the qualifications they deny you, or the faults they object, are so very insignificant, that to prove yourself possessed of the one or free from the other is to make yourself doubly ridiculous. littleness is their element, and they give a character of meanness to whatever they touch. they creep, buzz, and fly-blow. it is much easier to crush than to catch these troublesome insects; and when they are in your power your self-respect spares them. the race is almost extinct:— one or two of them are sometimes seen crawling over the pages of the quarterly review!