massachusetts and other colonies during the second war between great britain and france, from the peace of aix-la-chapelle, 1748, to the peace of paris in 1763.

by the peace of aix-la-chapelle, france and england retained their respective possessions as they existed before the war. louisburg, which had been captured from the french in 1745 by the skill of the british admiral warren, aided most courageously by the massachusetts volunteers, was therefore restored to the french, much to the regret and mortification of the new england colonies, by whom the enterprise against that powerful and troublesome fortress had first been devised and undertaken. by the treaty between france and england, the boundaries of their possessions in america were left undefined, and were to be settled by commissioners appointed by the two countries. but the commissioners, when they met at paris, could not agree; the questions of these boundaries remained unsettled; and the french in canada, with the indians, nearly all of whom were in alliance with them, were constantly making aggressions and committing cruel outrages upon the english colonists in the back parts of new england, new york, pennsylvania, and virginia, who felt that their only security for life, property, and liberty was the extinction of french power in america, and the subjection of the indians by conquest or conciliation. the six years which followed the peace of 1748 witnessed frequent and bloody collisions between the english colonists and their french and indian canadian neighbours, until, in 1756, england formally declared war against france—a war which continued seven years, and terminated in the extinction of french power in canada, and in the enlargement of the [pg 243]british possessions from labrador to florida and louisiana, and from the atlantic to the pacific. this war, in its origin and many scenes of its conflicts and conquests, was an american-colonial war, and the american colonies were the gainers by its results, for which british blood and treasure had been lavishly expended. in this protracted and eventful conflict, the british government were first prompted and committed, and then nobly seconded by the colonies, massachusetts acting the most prominent part.

the last act of the british government, pursuant to the treaty of aix-la-chapelle in 1748, was to restore to the french government louisburg, in return for the strongly fortified fort of madras, which had been wrested from the french by the colonists, assisted by admiral warren with a few english ships in 1745; and the first act of the french government, after the restoration to them of louisburg, was to prepare for wresting from great britain all her american colonies. they dispatched soldiers and all kinds of military stores; encroached upon and built fortresses in the british province of nova scotia, and in the provinces of pennsylvania and virginia, and erected a chain of forts, and planted garrisons along the line of the british provinces, from the st. lawrence to the ohio river, and thence to the mississippi.

the only means at the command of great britain to counteract and defeat these designs of france to extinguish the english colonies in america was to prevent them from carrying men, cannon, and other munitions of war hither, by capturing their[pg 245] ships thus laden and employed; but the french government thought that the british government would not proceed to such extremities, for fear that the former would make war upon the german possessions of the latter, the king of england being the elector of hanover. besides, the proceedings of the french in america were remote and concealed under various pretexts; the french government could oppose a general denial to the complaints made as to its encroachments on british territory and settlements in the distant wilderness of america; while any attack by england upon french ships at sea would be known at once to all europe, and excite prejudice against england for such an act in time of peace against a neighbouring nation. the designs and dishonesty of the french government in these proceedings are thus stated by rapin:

"though the french in all their seaports were making the greatest preparations for supporting their encroachments in america, yet the strongest assurances came to england from that ministry that no such preparations were making, and that no hostility was intended by france against great britain or her dependencies. these assurances were generally communicated to the british ministry by the duke of mirepoix, the french ambassador to london, who was himself so far imposed upon that he believed them to be sincere, and did all in his power to prevent a rupture between the two nations. the preparations, however, were so notorious that they could be no longer concealed, and mirepoix was upbraided at st. james's with being insincere, and the proofs of his court's double-dealing were laid before him. he appeared to be struck with them; and complaining bitterly of his being imposed upon, he went in person over to france, where he reproached the ministry for having made him their tool. they referred him to their king, who ordered him to return to england with fresh assurances of friendship; but he had scarcely delivered them when undoubted intelligence came that a french fleet from brest and rochefort was ready to sail, with a great number of land forces on board. the french fleet, which consisted of twenty-five ships of the line, besides frigates and transports, with a vast number of warlike stores, and between three and four thousand land forces, under baron dieskau, were ready to sail from brest, under admiral macnamara. upon this intelligence, admiral holbourne was ordered to reinforce boscawen with six ships of the line and one frigate; and a great number of capital ships were put into commission. it was the 6th may (1755) before macnamara sailed; but he soon returned with nine of his capital ships, and ordered the rest to proceed under the command of m. bois de la mothe.

"when news of so strong a squadron sailing from brest was confirmed, the people of england grew extremely uneasy for the fate of the squadron under boscawen and holbourne; and it was undoubtedly owing to the bad management of the french that one or both of those squadrons were not destroyed."

the king, in proroguing parliament, the 27th of may, 1755, among other things said:

"that he had religiously adhered to the stipulations of the treaty of aix-la-chapelle, and made it his care not to injure or[pg 247] offend any power whatsoever; but never could he entertain the thoughts of purchasing the name of peace at the expense of suffering encroachments upon, or yielding up, what justly belongs to great britain, either by ancient possession or solemn treaties. that the vigour and firmness of his parliament on this important occasion have enabled him to be prepared for such contingencies as may happen. that, if reasonable and honourable terms of accommodation can be agreed upon, he will be satisfied, and in all events rely on the justice of his cause, the effectual support of his people, and the protection of divine providence."

this speech to parliament was delivered a year before war was formally declared between england and france; and a year before that, in 1754, by royal instructions, a convention of delegates from the assemblies of the several colonies was held at albany, in the province of new york. among other things relative to the union and defence of the colonies which engaged the attention of this convention, "a representation was agreed upon in which were set forth the unquestionable designs of the french to prevent the colonies from extending their settlements, a line of forts having been erected for this purpose, and many troops transported from france; and the danger the colonies were in of being driven by the french into the sea, was urged." the representation of the imminent danger to the colonies from the french encroachments probably accelerated the measures in england which brought on the war with france.

mr. bancroft endeavours again and again to convey the impression that this seven years' war between england and france was a european war, and that the american colonies were called upon, controlled, and attempted to be taxed to aid great britain in the contest; yet he himself, in one place, admits the very reverse, and that great britain became involved in the war in defence of the american colonies, as the facts above stated show, and as will appear more fully hereafter. mr. bancroft states the whole character and objects of the war, in both america and europe, in the following words:

"the contest, which had now (1757) spread into both hemispheres, began in america. the english colonies, dragging england into their strife, claimed to advance their frontier, and to include the great central valley of the continent in their system. the american question therefore was, shall the continued colonization of north america be made under the auspices of english protestantism and popular liberty, or shall the tottering legitimacy of france, in its connection with roman catholic christianity, win for itself a new empire in that hemisphere? the question of the european continent was, shall a protestant revolutionary kingdom, like prussia, be permitted to rise up and grow strong within its heart? considered in its unity as interesting mankind, the question was, shall the reformation, developed to the fulness of free inquiry, succeed in its protest against the middle age?

"the war that closed in 1748 had been a mere scramble for advantages, and was sterile of results; the present conflict, which was to prove a seven years' war, was against the unreformed; and this was so profoundly true, that all the predictions or personal antipathies of sovereign and ministers could not prevent the alliances, collisions, and results necessary to make it so."

the object and character of such a war for protestantism and liberty, as forcibly stated by mr. bancroft himself, was as honourable to england, as the results of it have been beneficial to posterity and to the civilization of mankind; yet mr. bancroft's sympathies throughout his brilliant but often inconsistent pages are clearly with france against england, the policy and character of whose statesmen he taxes his utmost ingenuity and researches to depreciate and traduce, while he admits they are engaged in the noblest struggle recorded in history.

from 1748 to 1754, the contests in america were chiefly between the colonists and the french and their indian allies (except at sea), and were for the most part unsuccessful on the part of the colonists, who lost their forts at oswego and niagara, and suffered other defeats and losses. "but in the year 1755," says dr. minot, "the war in america being now no longer left to colonial efforts alone, the plan of operations consisted of three parts. the first was an attack on fort du quesne, conducted by troops from england under general braddock; the second was upon the fort at niagara, which was carried on by american regulars and indians (of the six nations); and the third was an expedition against crown point, which was supported by militia from the northern colonies, enlisted merely for that service."

the expedition against fort du quesne ended in the disgraceful defeat and death of braddock and one-third of his men, hundreds of whom were shot down by ambushed foes whom they never saw. the contemplated attack upon niagara was never prosecuted; the expedition against crown point was a failure, and exhaustive of the resources of [pg 251]massachusetts; but, as a compensation, colonel johnson defeated and took prisoner the french general, baron dieskau, for which the king made him a baronet, and the house of commons voted him a grant of ￡5,000 sterling.

the most was made in england as well as the colonies of this decisive victory over a famous french general and his troops, as the year otherwise was disastrous to the english, and "the french, with the assistance of their indian allies, continued their murders, scalping, capturing, and laying waste the western frontiers of virginia and pennsylvania during the whole winter."

nor were the years 1756 and 1757 more successful on the part of the english than the year 1755. some of the principal events are as follows: war was formally declared by england against france in may, and declared by france against england in august. the expenses incurred by massachusetts and other colonies in the unfortunate crown point expedition were compensated by a parliamentary grant of ￡115,000 sterling.

the earl of loudoun arrived from england as governor of virginia, to take command of the british troops in america;[pg 253] but did little more than consult with the governors of the several provinces as to military operations for the ensuing year, the relations of provincial and regular officers, the amount of men and means to be contributed by each province for common defence. he gave much offence by his haughty and imperious demands for the quartering of the troops in new york and in massachusetts. additional troops were sent from england, under major-general abercrombie, who superseded the earl of loudoun as commander-in-chief. the fortress at oswego was taken and destroyed by the french.

the french, led by montcalm, took fort william henry.

the massachusetts assembly refused to allow british troops to be quartered upon the inhabitants.

at the close of the year 1757, the situation of the colonies was alarming and the prospects of the war gloomy. the strong[pg 256] statements of mr. bancroft are justified by the facts. he says: "the english had been driven from every cabin in the basin of the ohio; montcalm had destroyed every vestige of their power within the st. lawrence. france had her forts on each side of the lakes, and at detroit, at mackinaw, at kaskaskia, and at new orleans. the two great valleys of the mississippi and the st. lawrence were connected chiefly by three well-known routes—by way of waterford to fort du quesne, by way of maumee to the wabash, and by way of chicago to the illinois. of the north american continent, the french claimed and seemed to possess twenty parts in twenty-five, leaving four only to spain, and but one to britain. their territory exceeded that of the english twenty-fold. as the men composing the garrison at fort loudoun, in tennessee, were but so many hostages in the hands of the cherokees, the claims of france to the valleys of the mississippi and the st. lawrence seemed established by possession. america and england were humiliated."

the colonies had shown, by their divided and often antagonistic counsels, their divided resources and isolated efforts, how unable they were to defend themselves even when assisted at some points by english soldiers, commanded by unskilful generals, against a strong and united enemy, directed by generals of consummate skill and courage. the colonies despaired of future success, if not of their own existence, after incurring so heavy expenditures of men and money, and wished england to assume the whole management and expenses of the war.

the colonies had done much for their own defence, but they acted as so many petty independent governments, and could not be brought to combine their resources of men and money in any systematical method, under some central authority as the same colonies did twenty years later in the american revolution; and the first proceedings of abercrombie and loudoun rendered them powerless to command the confidence and united action of the colonies. general abercrombie was appointed commander-in-chief, to supersede general shirley, until the arrival of the earl of loudoun. abercrombie landed in new york the 12th of june, with two regiments, and forty german officers, who were to raise and train recruits for loudoun's royal american regiment of four thousand—a most impolitic proceeding, which offended and discouraged the colonists. on his arrival at new york he received letters from the shrewd and able governor of virginia, dinwiddie, recommending washington as "a very able and deserving gentleman," who "has from the beginning commanded the forces of this dominion. he is much beloved, has gone through many hardships in the service, has great merit, and can raise more men here than any one," and urged his promotion in the british army. but washington's services and rank were never recognized in the british army. a week after abercrombie's arrival in new york, he wrote (june 19, 1756) a letter to governor colden: "i find you never will be able to carry on anything to any purpose in america, till you have a viceroy or superintendent over all the provinces." he stated that lord loudoun's arrival would produce "a great change in affairs."

the 25th of june abercrombie arrived at albany, and forthwith insisted that the regular officers should take precedence of the provincial officers, and that the troops should be quartered in private houses, which he accomplished two days afterwards; for on the 27th, "in spite of every subterfuge, the soldiers were at last billeted upon the town," to the great indignation of the mayor, who wished all the soldiers back again, "for" said he, "we can defend our frontiers ourselves."

the next day after abercrombie's arrival, shirley (now relinquishing the office of commander-in-chief) informed general abercrombie of the exposed and unsafe state of oswego, advising that two battalions be sent forward for its protection; that 200 boats were ready, and every magazine along the passage plentifully supplied. but abercrombie decided to wait the arrival of loudoun, who at length reached albany the 29th of july, and joined abercrombie in the policy of hesitation and delay, though having 10,000 men at his disposal—the new england regiments, with the provincials from new york and new jersey, amounting to more than 7,000 men, besides 3,000 soldiers of british regular regiments.

in the meantime the french generals were more active and energetic, taking places of defence between albany and oswego, strengthening the defences and garrison of ticonderaga (then in possession of the french, and called by them fort carillon), making a palisaded camp near the mouth of sandy creek, close to oswego, and at length attacking oswego itself, the enterprising montcalm making forced marches day and night, marching on foot, living and sleeping like his soldiers, and taking the fort the 9th of august, after a week's siege, capturing 1,600 prisoners, 120 cannon, six vessels of war, 300 boats, stores of ammunition and provisions, and three chests of money.

loudoun had sufficient forces and time to penetrate to the heart of canada, had he possessed the qualities of montcalm; but he preferred to place obstacles to prevent the enemy from attacking him; and after having spent some weeks in busy inactivity at albany, he dismissed the provincials to their homes, and the regulars to winter quarters.

loudoun never fought a battle in america; and the only battle in which abercrombie commanded he kept out of reach of personal danger, was defeated, and retreated[240] after losing 1,942 men, among whom was general lord howe, who had been selected by pitt to be commander-in-chief in america, had not succeeded to it, but had become a favourite with the army and colonists of all classes.

the general assembly of massachusetts appropriated out of the public treasury the sum of ￡250 for erecting a monument to his memory in westminster abbey, as a testimony to the sense which the province had of the services and military virtues of the late lord viscount howe, who fell in the last campaign fighting in the cause of the colonies, and also to express the affection which their officers and soldiers have to his command.

after the disgraceful defeat and still more disgraceful retreat of abercrombie, the last of the incompetent english generals, general amherst was appointed commander-in-chief, assisted by general wolfe, and the fortunes of war turned in favour of england and her colonies, and the french power began to wane in america.

this change in the colonies from defeat to victory, from disgrace to honour, from distrust to confidence, from fear to triumph, was owing to a change of councillors and councils in england, and the rousing of the colonies from the shame and defeat of the past to a supreme and combined effort with the english armies for the expulsion of the french from america, and the consequent subjugation and alliance of the indian tribes, whose hostilities had been all along and everywhere prompted and aided by the french, who paid the indians large bounties for english scalps.

"but," says hutchinson, "in the interval between the repulse at ticonderaga and the arrival of general amherst, colonel bradstreet (a provincial officer of new york), with 3,000 provincials and 150 regulars, stole a march upon montcalm, and before he could send a detachment from his army to lake ontario by way of the st. lawrence, went up the mohawk river. about the 25th of august they arrived at fort frontenac; surprised the garrison, who were made prisoners of war; took and destroyed nine small vessels and much merchandise; but having intelligence of a large body of the enemy near, they made haste back to albany. the men complained of undergoing greater hardship than they had ever undergone before, and many sickened and died from the fatigue of the march."

after the arrival of lord amherst, three expeditions were proposed for the year 1758—the first against louisburg, the second against ticonderaga, and the third against fort du quesne—all of which were successful.

on the first expedition against louisburg, admiral boscawen sailed from halifax the 28th of may, with a fleet of 20 ships of the line and 18 frigates, and an army of 14,000 men, under the command of general amherst, assisted by general wolfe, and arrived before louisburg the 2nd of june. the garrison was composed of 2,500 regulars, aided by 600 militia, commanded by the chevalier de drucourt, an officer of courage and experience. the harbour was secured by five ships of the line, one 50-gun ship, and five frigates; three of which were sunk across the mouth of the basin. the landing of the troops, artillery, and stores had therefore to be effected some distance from the town, and was extremely difficult and hazardous; but general wolfe, who led the 2,000 men detached for that purpose, was equal to the occasion, and displayed qualities which designated him as the future conqueror of quebec. after an obstinate siege from the 8th of june to the 26th of july, the fortress was surrendered at discretion, and the whole of cape breton, including st. john island (since prince edward island), came into possession of great britain. the loss on the part of the english was about 400 killed and wounded; the garrison lost upwards of 1,500 men, and the town was reduced to a heap of ruins. the conquerors took 221 pieces of cannon, 16 mortars, and an immense quantity of stores and ammunition, and 5,637 prisoners, including naval officers, sailors, and marines.

admiral boscawen, after taking possession of the island of st. john, included in the capitulation of louisburg, sailed with the fleet for england, with general wolfe, conveying the french prisoners to england, and the trophies of victory. general[pg 263] amherst embarked, with about thirty transports filled with the victorious troops, and encamped on the common at boston near the end of august, on his march, which he pursued after three days' rest, to the western forts; for a part of the plan of operations was, after the conquest of cape breton, for general amherst, with 12,000 men, to destroy the enemy's fort at ticonderaga (so unsuccessfully attacked by abercrombie the year before), in order to open a way into canada by the lakes george and champlain, and the river sorell down to quebec, the capture of which, by advancing up the st. lawrence, was assigned to the fleet under admiral saunders, and to general wolfe, in command of 9,000 men. it was intended that the armies under generals amherst and wolfe should meet and join in the taking of quebec; but the junction was not effected, and the two armies operated separately and successfully. the taking of the fortress of niagara, which was regarded as "the throat of the north-western division of the american continent," was assigned to brigadier-general prideaux, aided by sir william johnson, who commanded the provincials and indians. general prideaux conducted the expedition and planned the mode of attack; but on the 19th of july, while walking in his trenches, he was killed by the carelessness of his own gunner in firing a cannon.

"luckily," says hutchinson, "for sir william johnson, who, as next officer, took the command on prideaux's death, a body of 1,200 men from detroit, etc., making an attempt, on the 24th of july, to throw themselves into the fort as a reinforcement, were intercepted and killed, taken, or dispersed, and the next day the garrison capitulated." (history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., p. 77.)

the expedition against the french fort du quesne, on the ohio river, so fatal to general braddock, was entrusted to general forbes, with washington, colonel of the virginia regulars, as second in command. forbes, though wasting under the disease of consumption, heroically superintended and endured for three months the difficulties and fatigues of the same line of march pursued by braddock three years before, leaving philadelphia in command of 8,000 men early in july, but not reaching fort du quesne until late in november. on the evening preceding his arrival, the french garrison, deserted by their indians, abandoned the fort, and escaped in boats down the ohio. hutchinson says: "the expedition for dispossessing the french of fort du quesne, near the ohio, had at first a very unfavourable prospect. the english forces met with a variety of obstructions and discouragements; and when they had advanced to within thirty or forty miles of the fort, they were at a stand deliberating whether they should go forward or not. receiving intelligence that the garrison was in a weak condition, they pushed on. upon their arrival at the fort they met with no opposition. the enemy had deserted it, for want of provisions, as was generally believed; and it was added that the provisions intended to supply that fort were destroyed by bradstreet at fort frontenac.[244] thus the gallant and laborious exploit of bradstreet in demolishing fort frontenac contributed to the reduction of fort du quesne without firing a shot." "the english now took possession of that important fortress, and, in compliment to the popular minister, called it pittsburg. no sooner was the english flag erected on it, than the numerous tribes of the ohio indians came in and made their submission to the english. general forbes having concluded treaties with the natives, left a garrison of provincials in the fort and built a block-house near loyal hannah, but, worn out with fatigue, he died before he could reach philadelphia."[245] in the same month of july that sir william johnson dispossessed the french of niagara, general amherst took possession of the enemy's lines at ticonderaga, which the french abandoned after having set fire to the fort. a few days afterwards, in the beginning of august, general amherst obtained possession of the fort at crown point, it having also been abandoned by the french. about the middle of the month general amherst received information at crown point that general bourlamarque was encamped at isle aux noix with 3,500 men and 100 cannon, and that the french had four vessels on the lake under the command of the captain of a man-of-war. he therefore judged it necessary to build a brigantine, a radeau, and a sloop of 16 guns. such a fleet could not be got ready before the beginning of october; on the 11th of which month general amherst embarked in batteaux, under the convoy of armed vessels, and proceeded down the lake; but encountering cold and stormy weather and contrary winds, he resolved, on the 19th, to return to crown point and go into winter quarters. no communications could be opened between the armies of amherst and wolfe; but the withdrawal of a great part of the french force from quebec, to watch and counteract the movements of general amherst, doubtless contributed to general wolfe's success. the fleet under sir charles saunders, and the army of five thousand men under general wolfe, arrived before quebec the latter part of june, and from that time to the 13th of september a series of daring but unsuccessful attempts were made to get possession of the city. how unyielding perseverance and heroic courage, against apparently insurmountable obstacles, effected the capture of that gibraltar of america, with the fall of the leaders of both armies in the bloody struggle, has often been vividly described and variously illustrated, which i need not here repeat.

the british and colonial arms were completely successful this year.[246] bradstreet destroyed fort frontenac; sir william johnson captured niagara; forbes, aided by washington, retook fort du quesne, and named it pittsburg; lord amherst took possession of ticonderaga and crown point; and wolfe became the conqueror of quebec. in each of these expeditions the provincial troops rendered essential service. the several provinces were prompted to put forth their utmost efforts from their impending perils by the successive victories of the french and indians the previous year, and encouraged by the appeal of the prime minister, pitt, who assured them of the strong forces by sea and land from england, and that they would be compensated for the expense they might incur.

the heart of massachusetts had for many years been set upon the conquest of canada, both for her own security and for the extension of her northern limits, and she had sacrificed[pg 266] much treasure and many lives for that purpose, but had failed in each attempt. the taking of quebec did not complete the conquest of canada. on the fall of that city, montreal became the seat of the french government; the inhabitants of canada remained subjects of the king of france; the french military forces within the province, were still very considerable; and m. de levi, who succeeded montcalm as commander-in-chief of the army, made a very formidable attempt to recover quebec. on the reduction of that city, the fleet under sir charles saunders returned to england, and general murray was left in[pg 267] command at quebec with a garrison of 5,000 men, which, during the ensuing winter, owing to the extreme cold, and the want of vegetables and fresh provisions, was reduced to 3,000 men fit for service, when in april m. de levi, with a superior force, attacked the city, drove general murray's little army from the plains of abraham within the walls, and closely besieged the city, which was relieved, and m. de levi compelled to raise the siege, by the opportune arrival of the english fleet.

in the meantime, general amherst was energetically pursuing the most effective measures for the complete extinction of french power in canada. at the commencement of the year 1760, he applied to the northern colonies for men and means equal to what they had provided for 1759, and during the winter he made arrangements to bring the armies from quebec, lake champlain, and lake ontario, to act against montreal. colonel haviland, by his orders, sailed early in the[pg 268] spring with a detachment from crown point, took possession of the isle aux noix, which he found abandoned by the enemy, and proceeded thence to montreal; while lord amherst, with his own division, consisting of about 10,000 regulars and provincials, left the frontier of new york and advanced to oswego, where he was joined by 1,000 indians of the six nations, under sir william johnson. embarking with his entire army on lake ontario, and taking the fort of isle royale in his way, he arrived at montreal, after a difficult and dangerous passage, on the same day that general murray landed near the place from quebec. the two generals met with no opposition in disembarking their troops; and by a happy concurrence in the execution of a well-concerted plan, colonel haviland joined them with his detachment the next day. the strength of these combined armies, and the masterly disposition made by the commanders, convinced m. de vaudreuil that resistance would be ineffectual, and he demanded a capitulation; and on the 8th of september, 1760, montreal, detroit, michili-mackinac, and all other places within the government of canada, were surrendered to his britannic majesty. the destruction of an armament ordered out from france in aid of canada completed the annihilation of french power on the continent of america.

but though the conquest of canada was thus completed, and the american colonies thus secured from the encroachments and dangers which had disturbed their peace and caused much sacrifice of life for one hundred and thirty years, yet the war between england and france was not ended, and in 1762 spain joined france in the war against the former; but the actual scene of the war was chiefly the west indies, and the series of naval and other battles fought there were successive victories on the part of england. "the progress of the british conquests, which threatened all the distant possessions of the enemy, was arrested by preliminary articles of peace, which were signed and interchanged at fontainebleau between the ministers of great britain, france, spain, and portugal, on the 3rd day of november. on the 10th of february, 1763, a definite treaty was signed at paris, and soon after ratified."

the joy was general and intense throughout england and north america at such a conclusion of a seven years' open war, preceded by several years of hostile and bloody encroachments on the settlements of the english provinces by the french and indians. it was a war prompted and commenced by the colonies, and in which their very existence as well as liberties were involved. no one of the american colonies had a deeper, if as deep a stake in the results of this protracted struggle as the province of massachusetts; no one had more suppliantly and importunately solicited the aid of money and men from england; and no colony had benefitted so largely in its commerce and resources during the successive years of the contest, as massachusetts. as early as 1755 (the year before war was formally declared between england and france), the legislature of massachusetts adopted an address to the king, in which, after referring to their large expenditure in their unsuccessful expedition against crown point, they stated their services and prayed to be relieved from the burden incurred by means of them. they pleaded the precedent of the cape breton invasion (for expenses incurred in which, in 1745, the british parliament had granted them compensation), and prayed that his majesty would give orders for the support of such forts and garrisons as they hoped to establish, and aid them in the further execution of their designs. and in another address, adopted in october of the same year, the massachusetts court said that the design of securing his majesty's territories against the invasions of the french was what his majesty alone was equal to project and execute, and the nation to support; and that unless they could obtain the relief which they were soliciting from the royal bounty, they should be so far from being able to remove encroachments that they would be unable to defend themselves.

massachusetts having succeeded, with the other colonies, to "drag," as mr. bancroft expresses it, "england into a war with france," was thus importunate in soliciting aid and compensation from england for her self-originated expenses, and was so successful in her applications as to make the war a pecuniary benefit as well as a means of securing and enlarging her boundaries; for, in the words of the historian quoted above, in a previous page, "the generous compensations which had been made every year by parliament not only alleviated the burden of taxes, which otherwise would have been heavy, but, by the importation of such large sums of specie, increased commerce; and it was the opinion of some that the war added to the wealth of the province, though the compensation did not amount to half the charges of the government."

the monies raised by the colonies were expended in them and upon their own citizens—monies passing from hand to hand, and for provisions provided and works done in the colonies; but the large sums appropriated by parliament for the war in the colonies was so much money abstracted from england, sent across the atlantic, and added to the resources and wealth of the colonies.

after the close of the war, in 1763, massachusetts acknowledged her obligations to england for her protection and safety. in an address of both houses of her legislature to the governor that year, they acknowledge that "the evident design of the french to surround the colonies was the immediate and just cause of the war; that without the protection afforded them during the war, they must have been a prey to the power of france; that without the compensation made them by parliament, the burden of the expense of the war must have been insupportable." in their address to the king they make the same acknowledgments, and at the conclusion promise to evidence their gratitude by every expression of duty and loyalty in their power.

mr. otis, afterwards the most eloquent agitator against england, and advocate of independence, at the first town meeting of boston after the peace, having been chosen chairman, addressed the inhabitants in the following words, which he caused to be printed in the newspapers:

"we in america have certainly abundant reasons to rejoice. the heathen are not only driven out, but the canadians, much more formidable enemies, are conquered and become our fellow-subjects. the british dominion and power may be said literally to extend from sea to sea, and from the great river to the ends of the earth. and we may safely conclude, from his majesty's wise administration hitherto, that liberty and knowledge, civil and religious, will be co-extended, improved, and preserved to the latest posterity. no other constitution of civil government has yet appeared in the world so admirably adapted to these great purposes as that of great britain. every british subject in america is of common right, by act of parliament, and by the laws of god and nature, entitled to all the essential privileges of britons. by particular charters, there are peculiar privileges granted, as in justice they might and ought, in consideration of the arduous undertaking to begin so glorious an empire as british america is rising to. those jealousies that some weak and wicked minds have endeavoured to infuse with regard to the colonies, had their birth in the blackness of darkness, and it is a great pity they had not remained there for ever. the true interests of great britain and her plantations are mutual; and what god in his providence has united, let no man dare attempt to pull asunder."

such were the official acknowledgments and professed feelings of massachusetts herself in regard to the conduct of england towards her at the close of the seven years' war with france, which was ratified by the peace of paris, 1763, and which secured the american colonies from the hostilities of the french and their indian allies for more than a hundred years. the language of massachusetts was but the language of all the american colonies in regard to great britain at this period—the language of gratitude and affection.

down, therefore, to within thirteen years of the american declaration of independence, the conduct of england to her american colonies is acknowledged upon the highest authority to have been just and generous.

footnotes:

"the french, upon recovering louisburg, had laid the scheme (the particulars of which shall be exhibited in their due place) for engrossing the whole empire of north america, and in a manner for extirpating the english interest there. notice of this was, soon after the peace of aix-la-chapelle, given to the english government by their governors in america, and proper instructions were dispatched to them to resist all encroachments attempted to be made upon the english territories. the earl of albemarle (british ambassador in paris) had orders from his court to remonstrate on this occasion; but his remonstrances had so little effect that the french seemed rather encouraged in than deterred from their usurpations. the english governors in america daily sent over complaints of the french encroachments there, which were too little regarded, in hopes of matters being compromised." (rapin's history of england, vol. xxi., p. 418.)

"but their encroachments went further (than nova scotia), and this year (1754) they began to make settlements upon the river ohio, within the limits of the british possessions in the western parts of virginia. they had likewise committed many hostilities against british subjects in other parts of america."

"all the while the french were multiplying their hostilities and strengthening their usurpations by new recruits of men, money, provisions of all kinds, and ammunition, and some of the best officers in france."

"when the government of england complained to the french court of those encroachments, the ministry gave evasive answers, and promised that everything should be amicably adjusted; but without desisting from their usurpations, which became every day more and more intolerable. the english, perceiving this, sent general orders to all their governors in america to repel force by force, and to drive them from all the settlements which they had made contrary to the faith of treaties, and especially along the ohio." (rapin's history of england, vol. xxi., pp. 478-491.)

"they had been incessantly making settlements upon the english property since the peace of aix-la-chapelle, and at last they made a settlement on the western part of virginia, upon the river ohio. mr. dinwiddie (governor of virginia) having intelligence of this, sent an officer, major washington, with a letter to the french commandant there, requiring him to desist, and with orders, if possible, to bring the indians over to the british interest. washington had but indifferent success with the indians; and when he arrived with some of the indians at the french settlements, he found the french by no means inclined to give over their undertaking, and that the indians, notwithstanding all their fair promises, were much more in their interest than in that of england. upon further inquiry it was found that the indians called the six nations, who, by the treaty of utrecht, were acknowledged to be subject to great britain, had been entirely debauched by the french, who had likewise found means to bring over to their interest those vast tracts that lie along the great lakes and rivers to the west of the apalachian (or allegany) mountains.

"having thus got the friendship of those indians, they next contrived how they could cut them off from all communication with the english, and for that purpose they seized the persons and effects of all the english whom they found trading with the indians; and they erected a chain of forts from canada to mississippi, to prevent all future communication between the english and those indians; at the same time destroying such of the indians as discovered any affection or regard for the british subjects: so that in a very few years all the eastern as well as the western colonies of great britain were in danger of being ruined."—ib., pp. 290, 291.

"though the several provinces belonging to great britain, in the neighbourhood of the french encroachments, raised both men and money against them, yet the forms of their legal proceedings in their assemblies were so dilatory that the french always had the start of them, and they surprised a place called log's town, belonging to the virginians, on the ohio. this was a place of great importance, and the french made themselves masters of the block-house and the truck-house, with skins and other commodities to the amount of ￡20,000, besides cutting off all the english traders in those parts but two, who found means to escape. about the same time, near 1,000 french, under the command of monsieur de carstrec?ur, and 18 pieces of cannon, came in 300 canoes from venango, a fort that they had usurped upon the banks of the ohio, and surprised an english fort on the forks of the monongahella. after this, a great many skirmishes happened between the english and the french with various success.

"in the meanwhile, orders came from england to the governors of the british settlements in america to form a kind of political confederacy, to which every province was to contribute a quota. though the scheme of political confederacy was the best measure that could be pursued in the situation of the british settlements, yet it had not all the effect that was expected from it." (rapin's history of england, vol. xxi., pp. 491, 492.)

rapin's history of england, vol. xxi., pp. 520, 521. rapin adds:—"while all europe was in suspense about the fate of the english and french squadrons, the preparations for a vigorous sea war were going on in england with unparalleled spirit and success. notwithstanding, the french court still flattered itself that great britain, out of tenderness to his majesty's german dominions, would abstain from hostilities. mirepoix (the french ambassador at london) continued to have frequent conferences with the british ministry, who made no secret that their admirals, particularly boscawen, had orders to attack the french ships wherever they should meet them; on the other hand, mons. de mirepoix declared that his master would consider the first gun fired at sea, in a hostile manner, as a declaration of war. this menace, far from intimidating the english, animated them to redouble their preparations for war."—ib., p. 521.

rapin, vol. xxi., p. 521. it was during this interval that the unfortunate expedition, death, and defeat of general braddock took place, on the banks of the ohio river, at fort du quesne, afterwards called pittsburg. "the naval expedition, under admiral boscawen, was somewhat more fortunate (than that of braddock), though far from answering the expectations of the public. he made a prosperous voyage till he came to the banks of newfoundland, where his rendezvous was; and in a few days the french fleet, under de la mothe, came to the same station. but the thick fogs which prevail on those coasts, especially at that time of the year, kept the two squadrons from seeing one another; and part of the french squadron escaped up the river st. lawrence, while some of them went round and got into the same river by the straits of belleisle, by a way which had never been attempted before by ships of war. while boscawen's fleet, however, lay before cape race, on the banks of newfoundland, which was thought to be the proper station for intercepting the enemy, two french ships—the alcide, of 60 guns and 480 men; and the lys, pierced for 64 guns, but mounting only 22, and having eight companies of land forces on board—fell in with the dunkirk, captain howe, and the defiance, captain andrews, two 60-gun ships of the english squadron, and were, both of them, after a smart engagement, in which captain (afterwards lord) howe behaved with the greatest skill and intrepidity, taken, with about ￡8,000 on board. though this action was far from answering the grand destination of the fleet, yet when the news reached england it was of infinite service to the public credit of every kind; as the manner in which it was conducted was a plain proof that the english government was resolved to observe no further measures with the french, but to take or destroy their ships wherever they could be met with."—ib., pp. 525, 526.

yet, in the face of these facts, that the french government had been encroaching upon the colonies for six years—ever since the treaty of aix-la-chapelle; had been transporting soldiers and all the munitions of war to america to exterminate the english colonies; had put to death british subjects; and that complaints of these outrages had been made to england year after year by the governors and representatives of the colonies, and that the french government had at this time, by fair words and false pretences, deceived the government of england, which had warned the french government that the english admirals had orders to attack and take all the french ships, public and private, that should be met with at sea; yet, in the face of such facts, mr. bancroft, with his habitual hostility to england and endless perversions of historical facts, says in 1755: "france and england were still at peace, and their commerce was mutually protected by the sanctity of treaties. of a sudden, hostile orders were issued to all british vessels of war to take all french vessels, private as well as public," and "eight thousand french seamen were held in captivity. all france resented the perfidy. 'never,' said louis the fifteenth, 'will i forgive the piracies of this insolent nation.' and in a letter to george the second he demanded ample reparation for the insult to the flag of france by boscawen, and for the piracies of the english men-of-war, committed in defiance of international law, the faith of treaties, the usages of civilized nations, and the reciprocal duties of kings." (history of the united states, vol. iv., pp. 217, 218.)

among the eight thousand french seamen held in captivity were the soldiers destined for america, to invade the british colonies in time of protracted peace and against "the faith of treaties." mr. bancroft also ignores the fact that a year before this the commissioners from the legislative assemblies of the several colonies, assembled at albany, had represented to the british government the alarming encroachments of the french, and imploring aid, and that the french authorities in america had offered the indians bounties on english scalps.

hutchinson's history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., pp. 21-23.

"while the convention was sitting, and attending principally to the frontiers of the colonies, in the western parts, mr. shirly (governor of massachusetts) was diligently employed in the east, prosecuting a plan for securing the frontiers of massachusetts bay."—ib., p. 25.

"in the beginning of this year (1755) the assembly of massachusetts bay, in new england, passed an act prohibiting all correspondence with the french at louisburg; and early in the spring they raised a body of troops, which was transported to nova scotia, to assist lieutenant-governor lawrence in driving the french from the encroachments they had made upon that province." (hume and smollett's history of england, vol. vii., p. 7.)

history of the united states, vol. iv., pp. 276, 277.

minot's history of massachusetts bay, vol. i., p. 228. dr. minot adds: "the whole number assigned for this expedition against crown point was 3,700, of which massachusetts voted to raise 1,560, besides 500 by way of reinforcement, if judged necessary by the commander-in-chief, with the advice of the council; and to these 300 more were added after the defeat of general braddock. the general court also voted ￡600 to be applied towards engaging the indians of the six nations in the enterprise, and supporting their families. in short, this became a favourite enterprise both with the general court and the people of massachusetts bay, not only because it originated with them, but because it was directed against a quarter (considering the french in nova scotia were subdued and dispersed) whence they had the most to fear."—ib., pp. 229, 230.

before johnson could attack crown point, he was himself attacked in his own quarters, at what was called carrying place, near lake george, by dieskau, at the head of 200 regular troops, 600 canadians, and 600 savages. johnson's force consisted of 3,400 provincial soldiers and 300 indians, "regularly enlisted under the english flag and paid from the english treasury." among the new england men was israel putman, of connecticut, then a private soldier, afterwards famous. mr. bancroft, as might be expected, depreciates the services of sir william johnson in this important and successful battle. but he cannot deny that johnson selected the most advantageous position for his camp; sent out scouts on all sides, and obtained timely information of the approach of the enemy, and was fully prepared for it; directed the order of battle, in the early part of which he was wounded, causing his removal from the field, when for five hours the provincial soldiers, good marksmen, under their own officers, "kept up the most violent fire that had yet been known in america." the house of lords, in an address to the king, praised the colonists as "brave and faithful," and johnson was honoured with a title and money. "but," says mr. bancroft, "he did little to gain the victory, which was due to the enthusiasm of the new england men. 'our all,' they cried, 'depends on the success of this expedition.' 'come,' said pomeroy, of massachusetts, to his friends at home, 'come to the help of the lord against the mighty; you that value our holy religion and our liberties will spare nothing, even to the one-half of your estate.' and in all the villages 'the prayers of god's people' went up that 'they might be crowned with victory, to the glory of god;' for the war with france seemed a war for protestantism and freedom." (history of the united states, vol. iv., p. 212.) dr. minot justly observes: "such a successful defence made by the forces of the british colonists against a respectable army, with which the regular troops of france were incorporated, was an honourable instance of firmness, deliberation, and spirit." (history of massachusetts bay, vol. i., p. 254.)

hume and smollett's history of england, vol. xii., p. 25.

"thus," says minot, "ended the transactions of the year 1755—'a year,' says a well-informed writer of that time, 'never to be forgotten in america.' it opened with the fairest prospects to these distant possessions of the british empire. four armies were on foot to remove the encroachments of a perfidious neighbour, and our coasts honoured with a fleet for their security, under the command of the brave and vigilant boscawen. we had everything to hope—nothing to fear. the enemy was dispersed; and we only desired a proclamation of war for the final destruction of the whole country of new france. but how unlooked-for was the event! general winslow (great-grandson of edward winslow, one of the patriarchs of the plymouth colony), indeed succeeded in nova scotia; but braddock was defeated; niagara and crown point remained unreduced; the savages were let loose from the wilderness; many thousand farms were abandoned; the king's subjects inhumanly butchered or reduced to beggary. to all which might be added an impoverishment of finances to a desperate state, the crown point expedition having cost, on the part of massachusetts bay alone, ￡76,618 8s. 9-1/2d., besides unliquidated accounts to a large amount for the charge of the sick and wounded, the garrisons at the two forts of william henry and edward, and the great stock of provisions laid in for their support." (history of massachusetts bay, vol. i., pp. 259-261.)

"mr. fox, on the 28th of january, presented to the house of commons a message from the king, desiring them to take into consideration the faithful services of the people of new england and some other parts of north america; upon which ￡115,000 were voted, and ￡5,000 as a reward to sir william johnson in particular." (hume and smollett's history of england, vol. xii., p. 42.)

"the sum granted by parliament was ￡115,000 sterling, which was apportioned in the following manner: massachusetts bay,￡54,000; connecticut, ￡26,000; new york, ￡15,000; new hampshire, ￡8,000; rhode island, ￡7,000; new jersey, ￡5,000. this money arriving in new york with the troops from england, enabled the government (of massachusetts) to pay off by anticipation the sums borrowed of the commander-in-chief, and to replenish the public treasury. they had also the satisfaction to find that the province had not only anticipated the king's expectations in raising men, but had furnished them with provisions, which he had ordered to be found at the national expense." (minot's history of massachusetts bay, vol. i., p. 288.)

"the loss of the two small forts, called ontario and oswego, was a considerable national misfortune. they were erected on the south side of the great lake ontario, standing on the opposite sides, at the mouth of onondaga river, that discharges itself into the lake, and constituted a port of great importance, where vessels had been built to cruise upon the lake, which is a kind of inland sea, and interrupt the commerce as well as the motions and designs of the enemy. the garrison consisted of 1,400 men, chiefly militia and new-raised recruits, under the command of lieutenant-colonel mercer, an officer of courage and experience; but the situation of the forts was very ill-chosen; the materials mostly timber or logs of wood; the defences wretchedly contrived and unfurnished; and, in a word, the place altogether untenable against any regular approach. such were the forts which the enemy wisely resolved to reduce. they assembled a body of troops, consisting of 1,300 regulars, 1,700 canadians, and a considerable number of indian auxiliaries, under the command of the marquis de montcalm, a vigilant and enterprising officer, to whom the conduct of the siege had been entrusted by the marquis de vaudreuil, governor and lieutenant-general of new france. the garrison having fired away all their shells and ammunition from fort ontario, spiked up the cannon, and, deserting the fort, retired next day across the river into fort oswego, which was even more exposed than the other, especially when the enemy had taken possession of fort ontario, from whence they immediately began to fire without intermission. colonel mercer being on the 13th killed by a cannon ball, the fort destitute of all cover, the officers divided in opinion and the garrison in confusion, they next day demanded capitulation, and surrendered themselves prisoners of war, on condition that they should be exempted from plunder, conducted to montreal, and treated with humanity. these conditions, however, the marquis did not punctually observe. the british officers were insulted by the savage indians, who robbed them of their clothes and baggage, massacred several of them as they stood defenceless on parade, and barbarously scalped all the sick people in the hospital. finally, montcalm, in direct violation of the articles as well as in contempt of common humanity, delivered up above twenty men of the garrison to the indians in lieu of the same number they had lost during the siege; and in all probability these miserable captives were put to death by those barbarians, with the most excruciating tortures, according to the execrable custom of the country.

"the prisoners taken at oswego, after having been thus barbarously treated, were conveyed in batteaux to montreal, where they had no reason to complain of their reception; and before the end of the year they were exchanged. the victors immediately demolished the two forts (if they deserved that denomination), in which they found one hundred and twenty-one pieces of artillery, fourteen mortars, with a great quantity of ammunition, warlike stores and provisions, besides two ships and two hundred batteaux, which likewise fell into their hands." (hume and smollett's history of england, vol. xii., pp. 92-94.)

"the policy of the french was no less conspicuous than the superiority of their arms. instead of continuing the fort at oswego, they demolished it in presence of the indians of the five nations, to whom they represented that the french aimed only at enabling them to preserve their neutrality, and therefore destroyed the fortress which the english had erected in their country to overawe them, disdaining themselves to take the same advantage, although put in their hands by the right of conquest." (minot's history of massachusetts bay, vol. i., pp. 285, 286.)

fort william henry was situated on the southern coast of lake george, and was built with a view to protect the frontiers of the english colonies—especially new york and massachusetts. the fortifications were good, defended by a garrison of three thousand men, and covered by an army of four thousand, under the command of general webb, posted at no great distance at fort edward. the marquis de montcalm had, early in the season, made three different attacks upon fort william henry, in each of which he was repulsed by the resolute and courageous garrison. but montcalm at length assembled all his forces from crown point, ticonderaga, and other parts, amounting to nearly 10,000, including a considerable body of canadians and indians; attacked and invested the fort, which sustained the siege from the 3rd to the 9th of august, when, having burst most of their cannon, and expended their own ammunition, and receiving no relief or assistance from general webb, at fort edward, fourteen miles distant, with 4,000 men, col. monro surrendered upon the conditions that the garrison should march out with arms, the baggage of the officers and men, and all the usual necessaries of war, escorted by a detachment of french troops to fort edward, and interpreters attached to the savages. but, as in the case of the surrender of oswego, the articles of capitulation were not observed, but were perfidiously broken; the savages fell upon the british troops as they were marched out, despoiled them of their few remaining effects, dragged the indians in the english service out of their ranks, and assassinated them under circumstances of unheard-of barbarity. some soldiers with their wives and children are said to have been savagely murdered by these brutal indians. the greater part of the garrison, however, arrived at fort edward under the protection of the french escort. the enemy demolished the fort, carried off the effects, provisions, and everything else left by the garrison, together with the vessels preserved in the lake, and departed without pursuing their success by any other attempt. "thus ended," continues the historian, "the third campaign in america (1757), where, with an evident superiority over the enemy, an army of 20,000 regular troops, a great number of provincial forces, and a prodigious naval power—not less than twenty ships of the line—we abandoned our allies, exposed our people, suffered them to be cruelly massacred in sight of our troops, and relinquished a large and valuable tract of country, to the eternal reproach and disgrace of the british name." (hume and smollett's history of england, vol. xii., pp. 207-211.)

mr. hildreth remarks: "in america, after three campaigns, and extraordinary efforts on the part of the english, the french still held possession of almost all the territory in dispute. they had been expelled indeed from the bay of fundy, but they held louisburg, commanding the entrance to the st. lawrence, crown point, and ticonderaga, on lake champlain; frontenac and niagara, on lake ontario; presque isle, on lake erie; and the chains of forts thence to the head of the ohio were still in their hands. they had expelled the english from their ancient fort at oswego, had driven them from lake george, and compelled the six nations to a treaty of neutrality. a devastating indian war was raging along the whole north-western frontier of the british colonies, and indian scalping parties penetrated into the very centre of massachusetts, approached within a short distance of philadelphia, and kept maryland and virginia in constant alarm." (history of the united states, vol. ii., p. 479.)

"the massachusetts general court had provided barracks at the castle for such british troops as might be sent to the province. but some officers (from nova scotia) on a recruiting service, finding the distance (three miles) inconvenient, demanded to be quartered in the town. they insisted on the provisions of the mutiny act; but the magistrates to whom they applied denied that act to be in force in the colonies. loudoun warmly espoused the cause of his officers; he declared 'that in time of war the rules and customs must go, and threatened to send troops to boston to enforce the demand if not granted within 48 hours. to avoid this extremity, the general court passed a law of their own, enacting some of the principal provisions of the mutiny act; and loudoun, through governor pownall's persuasions, consented to accept this partial concession. the general court did not deny the power of parliament to quarter troops in america. their ground was, that the act, in its terms, did not extend to the colonies. a similar dispute occurred in south carolina, where great difficulty was encountered in finding winter quarters for the royal americans." (hildreth's history of the united states, vol. ii., pp. 476, 477.)

bancroft's history, vol. iv., p. 267.

"as the general court of massachusetts bay had been foremost in promoting the crown point expedition, and become proportionally exhausted of money, so they lost no time in making such use of the success of the troops in beating off the french as their necessities dictated. they drew up an address to his majesty, in which they stated their services, and prayed to be relieved from the burden incurred by means of them. they pleaded the precedent of the cape breton expedition (for the expenses of which parliament had compensated them), and prayed that his majesty would give orders for the support of such forts and garrisons as they hoped to establish, and aid them in the further execution of their designs.

"when the commander-in-chief urged upon them to join in the plan of the assembly of new jersey, who proposed a meeting of commissioners from all his majesty's colonies at new york, to consult what might further be done for the security of his majesty's territories against the invasion of the french, the same impoverishment constrained the general court to reply, that the design of securing those territories was what his majesty alone was equal to project and execute and the nation to support, and that unless they could obtain the relief which they were soliciting of the royal bounty, they should be as far from being able to remove encroachments as to be unable to defend themselves." (minot's history of massachusetts bay, vol. i., pp. 256, 257.)

a thousand of the regulars were sent to new york, where free quarters for the officers were demanded of the city. upon its being objected to by the authorities of the city, as contrary to the laws of england and the liberties of america, the viceroy, loudoun, replied to the mayor with an oath, "if you do not billet my officers upon free quarters this day, i'll order here all the troops in north america under my command, and billet them myself upon the city." "so," says bancroft, "the magistrates got up a subscription, and the officers, who had done nothing for the country but waste its resources, were supported at free quarters during the winter."

the same threats were used, with the same results, to the magistrates of boston and philadelphia, to obtain free quarters for the officers.

bancroft remarks somewhat bitterly: "the arbitrary invasion of private rights and the sanctity of domestic life by the illegal and usurped authority of a military chief, was the great result of the campaign. the frontiers had been left open to the french; but the tempting example had been given, so dangerous in times of peace, of quartering troops in the principal towns, at the expense of the inhabitants," (history of united states, vol. iv., pp. 240, 241.)

the army consisted of between nine and ten thousand provincials—seven thousand raised by massachusetts—and between six and seven thousand regulars and rangers in the king's pay, where abercrombie in person was in command. lord howe arrived in boston from england after the forces had left the province, and immediately upon his landing began his journey, and joined the army before any action took place.

"this body, the greatest which had ever assembled in arms in america since it was settled by the english, embarked on lake george the 5th of july, for the french fortress at ticonderaga (called carillon by the french), and arrived next day at a cove and landing-place, from whence a way led to the advance guard of the enemy. seven thousand men, in four columns, then began a march through a thick wood. the columns were necessarily broken; their guides were unskilful; the men were bewildered and lost; and parties fell in one upon another. lord howe, the life of the army, at the head of a column, which was supported by light infantry, being advanced, fell in with a party of the enemy, consisting of about four hundred regulars and some indians. many of them were killed, and one hundred and forty-eight taken prisoners. this, however, was a dearly purchased victory, for lord howe was the first who fell on the english side. the report of his death caused consternation as well as grief through the army, which had placed much confidence in him.

"about five hundred regulars were killed upon the spot, and about one thousand two hundred wounded. of the provincials, one hundred were killed, and two hundred and fifty wounded.

"the army still consisted of thirteen or fourteen thousand. the enemy was much inferior in number. the retreat, nevertheless, was precipitate. early in the morning of the 9th the whole army embarked in their boats, and arrived at the other end of the lake in the evening (no enemy pursuing). provisions, entrenching tools, and many stores of various kinds, fell into the hands of the enemy. the english arms have rarely suffered greater disgrace.

"the ill success of general abercrombie at ticonderaga caused his recall. he seemed to expect and desire it. he was succeeded by general amherst." (hutchinson's history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., pp. 70-75.)

"the successes of the french the last year (1757) left the colonies in a gloomy state. by the acquisition of fort william henry, they obtained full possession of the lakes champlain and george; and by the destruction of oswego, they had acquired the dominion of those other lakes which connect the st. lawrence with the mississippi. the first afforded the easiest admission from the northern colonies into canada, or from canada into those colonies; the last united canada to louisiana. by the continual possession of fort du quesne, they preserved their ascendency over the indians, and held undisturbed possession of all the country west of the allegany mountains.

"in this adverse state of things, the spirit of britain rose in full proportion to the occasion; and her colonies, instead of yielding to despondency, resumed fresh courage, and cheerfully made the preparations for the coming campaign. mr. pitt had, the last autumn, been placed at the head of a new administration, which conciliated the contending interests in parliament; and while the wisdom of that extraordinary statesman devised great and judicious plans, his active spirit infused new life into all, whether at home or abroad, whose province it was to execute them. in a circular to the colonial governors, he assured them of the determination to send a large force to america, to operate by sea and land against the french; and called upon them to raise as large bodies of men as the number of the inhabitants would allow. the northern colonies were prompt and liberal in furnishing requisite supplies. the legislature of massachusetts voted to furnish 7,000 men; connecticut, 5,000; new hampshire, 3,000. these troops were ready to take the field very early in may, previous to which time admiral boscawen had arrived in halifax with a formidable fleet, and about 12,000 british troops under the command of general amherst. the earl of loudoun had returned to england, and general abercrombie, on whom the chief command of the entire forces of the american war had devolved (until the arrival of lord amherst), was now at the head of 50,000 men, the most powerful army ever seen in america." (holmes' annals of america, vol. ii., pp. 79, 80.)

history of massachusetts bay, vol. ii., p. 74. holmes gives the following account of this brilliant achievement: "on the proposition of col. bradstreet, for an expedition against fort frontenac, relinquishing for the present his designs against ticonderaga and crown point, abercrombie sent that able and gallant officer on this service, with a detachment of 3,000 men, chiefly provincials, and two mortars. bradstreet having marched to oswego, embarked on lake ontario, and on the evening of the 25th of august landed within a mile of the fort. within two days his batteries were opened within so short a distance that almost every shell took effect; and the french commandant, finding the place untenable, surrendered at discretion. the indians having previously deserted, the prisoners were but 110. the captors found in the fort 60 pieces of cannon, 16 small mortars, a large number of small arms, a vast quantity of provisions, military stores and merchandise; and nine armed vessels fell into their hands. col. bradstreet having destroyed the fort and vessels, and such stores as could not be brought off, returned to the main army." (annals, vol. ii., p. 83.)

"the extraordinary rejoicings in england at this victory seemed to revive the honour of the northern british colonies as the former conquerors of cape breton. the trophies taken were brought in procession from kensington to st. paul's, and a form of thanksgiving was ordered to be used in all the churches." (minot's history of massachusetts bay, vol. ii., p. 38.)

history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., p. 75.

holmes' annals, vol. ii., p. 84.

"the distant and important operations in canada almost wholly relieved the suffering inhabitants of the frontiers of the province; and, indeed, by a train of successes, gave a pledge of the future ease and security which was about to spread over all the british colonies. the fall of crown point, ticonderaga, niagara, and, above all, the capture of quebec, closed the year with universal rejoicing and well-founded hope that the toils of war would shortly cease throughout the land." (minot's history of massachusetts bay, vol. ii., p. 55.)

"the main body of the french army, which, after the battle of the plains of abraham, retired to montreal, and which still consisted of ten battalions of regulars, had been reinforced by 6,000 canadian militia and a body of indians. here the marquis de vaudreuil, governor-general of canada, had fixed his head-quarters and determined to make his last stand. for this purpose (after the unsuccessful attempt of m. de levi to retake quebec) he called in all his detachments, and collected around him the whole force of the colony." (holmes' annals, vol. ii., pp. 98, 99.)

"in the month of april, when the upper st. lawrence was so open as to admit of transportation by water, his artillery, military stores and heavy baggage were embarked at montreal and fell down the river, under convoy of six frigates; and m. de levi, after a march of ten days, arrived with his army at point aux tremble, within a few miles of quebec. general murray, to whom the care of maintaining the english conquest had been entrusted, had taken every precaution to preserve it, but his soldiers had suffered so by the extreme cold of winter, and by the want of vegetables and fresh provisions, that instead of 5,000, the original number of the garrison, there were not at this time above 3,000 men fit for service. with this small but valiant body he resolved to meet him in the field; and on the 28th of april marched out to the heights of abraham, where, near sillery, he attacked the french under m. de levi with great impetuosity. he was received with firmness; and after a fierce encounter, finding himself outflanked and in danger of being surrounded by superior numbers, he called off his troops and retired into the city. in this action the loss of the english was near 1,000 men, and that of the french still greater. the french general lost no time in improving his victory. on the very evening of the battle he opened trenches before the town; but it was the 11th of may before he could mount his batteries and bring his guns to bear upon the fortifications. by that time general murray, who had been indefatigable, had completed some outworks, and planted so immense an artillery on its ramparts, that the fire was very superior to that of the besiegers, and in a manner silenced their batteries. a british fleet most opportunely arriving a few days after, m. de levi immediately raised the siege and precipitately retired to montreal." (holmes' annals, vol. ii., pp. 98, 99.)

"general amherst made application to massachusetts for the same number of men for the service of the next year as they had raised the last (1759). the reduction of canada was still the object. this alone was found to be a sufficient stimulus to the assembly, and they needed no other arguments from the governor. the generous compensations which had been every year made by parliament not only alleviated the burden of taxes, which otherwise would have been heavy, but by the importation of such large sums of specie increased commerce, and it was the opinion of some that the war added to the wealth of the province, though the compensation did not amount to one-half the charges of government.

"the assembly, at the session in january, 1760, first granted a large bounty to the men in garrison at louisburg and nova scotia, to encourage them to continue in the service. a vote was then passed for raising 5,000 men more, upon the same encouragement as those of the last year had received. soon after the governor received letters from mr. pitt making the like requests as had been made by him the last year, and giving the same assurance of compensation. at the beginning of the year the english interest in canada was in a precarious state. quebec had been besieged in the spring, after a battle in which general murray had lost a considerable part of his garrison. fortunately, lord colville (with the english fleet) arrived at a critical time and caused the siege to be raised.

"the danger being over, and there being no probability of any french force from europe, it seemed agreed that all canada must fall in the course of the summer. the massachusetts enlistments went on but slowly. only 3,300 of the proposed 5,000 men enlisted, and 700 only remained in garrison at louisburg and nova scotia." (hutchinson's history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., pp. 79, 80.)

holmes' annals, vol. ii., pp. 99, 100. russell's europe, vol. v., letter 34.

general amherst, in his orders to the army, dated "camp before montreal, 8th september, 1760," announces this great event in the following words:

"the general sees with infinite pleasure the successes which have crowned the indefatigable efforts of his majesty's troops and faithful subjects in north america. the marquis vandreuil has capitulated the troops of france in canada; they have laid down their arms, and are to serve no more during the war. the whole country submits to the dominion of great britain. the three armies are entitled to the general's thanks on this occasion, and he assures them that he will take the first opportunity of acquainting his majesty with the zeal and bravery which have always been exerted by the officers and soldiers of the regular and provincial troops, and also by his faithful indian allies. the general is confident that when the troops are informed that the country is the king's, they will not disgrace themselves by the least appearance of inhumanity or unsoldierlike behaviour by taking any plunder; but that the canadians, now become british subjects, may feel the good effects of his majesty's protection."

holmes' annals, vol. ii., p. 113.

there were still troubles on the borders of some of the provinces with tribes of indians, but none to excite serious alarm, and hostile indians were soon brought to submission. the majority of the high-spirited and powerful cherokee nation spurned every offer of peace; but lieutenant-colonel james grant, in command of the highlanders and a provincial regiment raised in south carolina, to act in conjunction with the regular forces, with the addition of some indian allies—in all about 2,600 men—defeated them, destroyed their towns, magazines and cornfields, and drove them for shelter and subsistence to the mountains, when their chieftains solicited peace.

"this reduction of the cherokees was among the last humbling strokes given to the power of france in north america." (heevatt, ii., 244-254; quoted in holmes' annals, vol. ii., p. 108).

minot's history of massachusetts bay, vol. i., pp. 256, 257.

hutchinson's history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., p. 79.

hutchinson's history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., p. 101.

hutchinson's history of massachusetts bay, vol. iii., pp. 101, 102.