newspapers in russia.—their number, character, and influence.—difficulties of editorial life.—the censorship.—an excursion to peterhof, oranienbaum, and cronstadt.—sights in the summer palace.—cronstadt and the naval station.—the russian navy.—the russian army: its composition and numbers.—the cossacks.—anecdotes of russian military life.
the conversation about kriloff and the visit to the opera naturally turned the thoughts of the youths in the direction of russian literature, journalism, and dramatic productions. frank was curious to know about the newspapers of the country, while fred's first inquiry referred to the works of its poets, historians, and dramatists.
"we will begin with the newspapers," said doctor bronson, "and first i will speak of those published in st. petersburg. they are all printed in russian, with the exception of a little sheet in german, for the exclusive use of the german residents, and le journal de st. petersbourg, the organ of the ministry of foreign affairs, and chiefly filled with official notices interesting to foreigners. it is printed in french, as most of the foreigners visiting russia understand that language. it contains very little local news, and not much from the outside world. in fact journalism, as we understand it in america, is practically unknown in russia. the best of the russian dailies could not stand a comparison with the leading journals of a dozen american cities, and a single copy of the herald, tribune, times, or world, of new york, contains more 'news,' as we call it, than all the papers of moscow and st. petersburg together."
"i suppose the censorship is largely responsible for this state of affairs," frank remarked.
"you are quite right," the doctor replied; "if the censorship did not exist there is no doubt that the papers would be much more enterprising than they are. they must not offend the government, or they are liable to suppression. editorials are generally submitted to the censor before going into type, and if approved they may be printed. if printed without approval, the publishers run the risk of censure. for a first offence they are 'cautioned;' for a second they are cautioned and fined; and for[pg 131] a third offence the publication is suspended for a month, three months, or perhaps entirely. consequently the papers cannot discuss public matters with any freedom, and they are entirely prohibited from publishing personal scandals, which form such an important part of the 'news' of several american papers i could name. in addition to cautions and fines, the editors are liable to imprisonment; and, taking all things into consideration, the way of the journalist is hard in russia."
fred asked the doctor what were the principal papers of the capital.
press-room of a daily newspaper.
"they change so often," was the reply, "that an answer made this year will hardly answer for next. each member of the ministry has his organ; that of the foreign ministry, as before stated, is le journal de st. petersbourg; while that of the war department is the russki invalid; known to the outer world as the invalide russe. the organ of the naval bureau is published at cronstadt, the great naval port of the empire, and not at the capital; but as cronstadt is only a few miles away, the locality is of little consequence. the golos is generally understood to be the organ of the ministry of the interior; and as this department has the supervision of the press, this paper is said to have more freedom than its rivals. but even the golos does not escape the hand of the censor, and its freedom of speech has several times brought it into trouble.
"what would be called a small circulation in america is a large one in russia. there is not a daily paper in the empire that averages a circulation of twenty-five thousand copies, and the leading papers of the two great cities have to content themselves with ten or fifteen thousand. i have been told that the daily papers of st. petersburg do not circulate altogether more than eighty thousand copies daily outside the capital,[pg 132] and about fifty thousand in it. remember, the mass of the population does not know how to read and write as in america, and consequently the circulation of the newspapers is confined to a small portion of the community.
interviewing an editor.
"a paper of great influence, probably the greatest in the empire, is the moscow gazette. it is supposed to be the organ of the emperor, with whom its editor, mr. katkoff, is on terms of intimacy. important edicts of the government are frequently foreshadowed in the gazette, and the national and international pulses are often felt through its columns. but, with all its influence, the gazette does not circulate more than twenty thousand copies—at least according to the figures at my command. the moscow gazette is more frequently quoted by foreign writers than any other journal in russia; and if it were published in french rather than in russian, we should probably hear of it even more frequently than we do."
"it's a pity they don't give us a french edition of it," said frank. "i would like very much to read the paper and know what it has to say,[pg 133] but of course i can't as long as it is in russian. french is the diplomatic language, and i wonder they don't make an edition for foreign circulation."
"did you ever hear," remarked the doctor, with a smile, "of the attempt of prince bismarck to have german take the place of french as the language of diplomacy?"
neither of the boys had heard the anecdote, which the doctor gave as follows:
prince gortchakoff.
"shortly after the close of the franco-german war, in 1870, bismarck thought he would establish german as the diplomatic language, and with this object in view he made use of german instead of french in an official communication to prince gortchakoff, the foreign minister of russia. gortchakoff promptly replied to the communication, and wrote in russian. bismarck saw the joke, and desisted from further attempts to carry out his design."
"returning to our subject," said the doctor, "there are daily papers[pg 134] in the large towns of russia, and weekly or semi-monthly papers in the smaller ones; but with its population of one hundred millions, the empire has less than one-tenth as many newspapers as we have in the united states, and probably not more than one-fiftieth, or even one-hundredth, of the circulation.
"the first printing-press in russia was set up in 1564. the first newspaper was printed at moscow in 1704, and the second at st. petersburg, a year later. peter the great abolished the use of the old slavic characters for printing purposes, and personally supervised the casting at amsterdam of the types in the russian common language as we now find it.
"in addition to the newspapers there are many magazines and reviews in russia, and some of them have a very large circulation. they contain articles on the condition of the country, biographical sketches of distinguished russians, historical notices of cities and towns, scientific reports, travels, anecdotes, and stories by russian writers, together with translations of european or american works. 'uncle tom's cabin' was published in one of the russian magazines, and so were the stories of dickens and other english authors. the magazines go to all parts of the empire, and have a larger circulation, proportioned to that of the newspapers, than do periodicals elsewhere."
the conversation was brought to an end by the entrance of the guide, who said it was time to start for their proposed excursion to peterhof. in a few minutes they were on the way to the station, and in due time were seated in the train which carried them to their destination.
peterhof is on the shore of the gulf of finland, not far from cronstadt; in fact the excursion included a visit to cronstadt before the party returned to the city. the palace was begun in 1720, under the direction of peter the great. nearly every sovereign of russia has made additions and alterations, but the original palace remains, and its general characteristics are preserved. even the yellow paint which peter adopted is still in use, and the palace contains several relics of the great czar, which are regarded with reverence by russian visitors, and with interest by others.
"it was here that peter the great died," wrote fred in his journal. "they showed us the bed whereon he breathed his last, and it was in the same condition as when he left it. it is not in the palace, but in a small building in the grounds, and it is said that in the same building the empress elizabeth sometimes amused her courtiers by cooking her own dinner. from another building, called marly, peter used to watch his fleet of ships at anchor near cronstadt; and in another, the hermitage, there[pg 135] is a curious arrangement, devised by catherine ii., so that a party at dinner did not need the aid of servants. you wonder how it was done?
"in front of each person at table there was a circular opening, through which a plate could be lowered to the kitchen or carving-room below, and replaced by another. imagine, if you please, a miniature 'lift,' or elevator, for each place at table, and you will understand the arrangement. thus a dinner of any number of courses could be served, and the party would be entirely by itself. catherine used this dining-room when she wished to discuss state secrets with foreign ambassadors, and be sure that no listening servant could betray them.
cabinet and chair in the palace.
"the palace contains many tapestries, articles of porcelain, malachite, and other costly things, and there are many pictures representing battles fought in the latter part of the last century. one room contains nearly four hundred portraits of girls in all parts of european russia, which were painted by a french count who travelled through the empire in catherine's time. the wonderful thing about them is, that the artist who executed the pictures was able to represent the subjects in different attitudes, so that no two are alike.
[pg 136]
"they showed us the tables and benches where several of the emperors played when they were children, and also the playthings that amused them.
illumination in a russian park.
"the grounds are quite as interesting as the palace. they are beautifully laid out in gardens, dotted with lakes, cascades, fountains, and little parks. no description in words could do justice to the spot, which must be seen in an elaborate picture to be appreciated. the water-works are nearly as fine as the celebrated one at versailles, or st. cloud in france, and of course the russians claim that they are superior. occasionally in summer there is a festival given by the emperor to some of his foreign guests; the grounds and the lake are lighted up with chinese lanterns, and the display closes with an exhibition of fireworks of no small importance. sometimes the emperor goes around the lake in a boat propelled by oars-men, but usually contents himself by looking on from a pavilion near the edge of the water.
tapestry and fire utensils at peterhof.
"from peterhof we drove to oranienbaum, about six miles away, where we took the boat to cronstadt. i can't begin to name all the palaces[pg 137] and chateaux on the road, as i was too busy with looking at them to remember what they were called; and besides, if i made a list it might be too long to be interesting. we visited two or three of them, but had not time for all; some were not open to strangers, as they were then occupied by their owners, and these russian grand-dukes and duchesses are very exclusive in their ways.
"at oranienbaum we found the little steamer which was to convey us to cronstadt, five miles away; she puffed, as though conscious of her importance, but did not make very good speed, and we had plenty of time to study cronstadt as we approached it. the city is not very large, nor is it particularly interesting. the chief objects of attraction are the tremendous fortifications, which are among the strongest in the world, and very extensive. they were begun by peter the great, in 1703, and there has hardly been a year since that time when labor on them has entirely ceased. the harbor was filled with ships belonging to the war fleet of russia, and certainly they have a fleet to be proud of. there is a smaller port, called the 'merchants' harbor,' where the commerce of the city is centred. it is an active place from may to november, when navigation is open, but when the baltic is sealed with ice in the winter months, it must be the perfection of dreariness.
"until quite recently ships drawing more than ten feet of water could not pass the bar of the neva and ascend to st. petersburg, but were compelled to anchor at cronstadt. recently a canal has been made, with a[pg 138] depth of twenty feet, so that a great many vessels which were formerly excluded on account of their size can ascend to the capital. during the crimean war cronstadt was blockaded by a french and english fleet; an attack was made on the forts of cronstadt, but it was easily repulsed; and after that time the allies did nothing more than regard the forts from a safe distance. at oranienbaum is a palace, from whose top the emperor nicholas used to watch the movements of the hostile fleet; the telescope he employed is still in the position where he left it on his last trip to st. petersburg."
while our friends were looking at the naval harbor of cronstadt and the splendid fleet at anchor there, doctor bronson reminded the youths that when peter the great ascended the throne russia had no navy, and none of her people knew anything about building ships.
door-way of peter's house at zaandam, holland.
"i have read about it," said frank, "and it was to learn the art of ship-building that he went to england and holland."
"that is what history tells us," the doctor answered. "he realized the inferior condition of a country without a navy, and sent intelligent young russians to study the art of building and navigating ships. not satisfied with what they learned, he left russia for about a year and a half, which he spent in acquiring useful knowledge. he worked in a ship-yard in holland disguised as a common workman, though it is generally believed that the officers in charge of the yard knew who he was. afterwards he spent three months in an english ship-yard; and when he[pg 139] returned to his country he was accompanied by some five hundred shipwrights, riggers, sail-makers, and other laborers required in an establishment such as he wished to create. from this beginning came the navy of russia. the foundation of the great fleet before us was laid by peter the great.
"the english and dutch origin of russian ship-building is shown in the english and dutch names for the different parts of a ship. the deck, keel, mast, and many other nautical things are the same in russian as in english; the russians had no equivalent words, and naturally adopted the names from the country that supplied the things named.
a student of navigation.
"and i can tell you something still more curious," the doctor continued, "as it was told to me by a russian captain. while the ship-builders of peter the great were from england and holland combined, the men to navigate the ships after they were built came almost wholly from the latter country. the result is that nearly all the evolutions of a ship, and the movements of the sailors to accomplish them, are in dutch, or rather they have been adopted from dutch into russian. the russian captain i have mentioned stated it to me in this way:
"'a dutch pilot or captain could come on my ship, and his orders in his own language would be understood by my crew: i mean simply the words of command, without explanations. on the other hand, a dutch crew could understand my orders without suspecting they were in russian.'"
"it is no wonder," said fred, "that the russians honor the memory of the great peter, and that their largest ship of war bears his name. am i right in regard to the ship?"
"it is the largest at present," replied the doctor, "but there are three ships—the tchesme, sinope, and catherine ii.—to be completed in 1887, which will be larger than the peter the great. the latter is an iron-clad turret-ship of 8285 horse-power and 10,000 tons displacement. she carries[pg 140] eight guns, has two turrets, and her iron plating at the water-line is fourteen inches thick. she is three hundred and thirty feet long and sixty feet wide in her broadest part, and resembles the great mastless ships of the british navy, particularly those of the dreadnought class. she was built at cronstadt, in 1874; the other and larger ships i have named are on the ways at sevastopol and nicolaieff, on the black sea.
steam frigate near cronstadt.
"without going into details, i will say that the russian navy consists of two great divisions: the fleet of the baltic and the fleet of the black sea. each of these great divisions is subdivided into sections: the baltic fleet into three, and the black sea fleet into two. the sections carry flags of different colors, white, blue, and red; this arrangement was taken from the dutch, like the system of ship-building in peter's time.
"at the beginning of 1885 the baltic fleet consisted of two hundred and nine vessels, including thirty-three armor-clad and belted ships, forty-nine unarmored frigates, corvettes, clippers, and cruisers, and ninety-five torpedo-boats. gun-boats, transports, and various other craft completed the list. the black sea fleet included ninety-eight vessels, of which seven were armor-clad; then there are the vessels of the caspian sea and the siberian flotillas; and altogether the russian navy comprised at that time 358 vessels, armed with 671 guns, with a measurement of 196,575 tons, and engines of 191,976 horse-power.
"before we drop the subject of russia's navy," the doctor continued, "perhaps you would like to hear about the popovkas."
neither of the youths had heard of these things, and wondered what[pg 141] they could be. doctor bronson relieved their perplexity by explaining that the popovkas were a new style of iron-clad ship intended for the defence of harbors, rather than for rapid cruising at sea.
frigate under sail and steam.
"they were the invention of admiral popoff, of the russian navy," he remarked, "and hence comes their name. the first of them was built in 1873, at nicolaieff, on the black sea, and was called the novgorod. she is circular, with a diameter of one hundred feet, and carries two eleven-inch guns in a revolving turret like that of the monitor. she measures two thousand tons, and has engines which propel her about six miles an hour. the other ship of this class is the admiral popoff, one hundred and twenty feet in diameter, carrying two twelve-inch guns in a revolving turret, and capable of steaming eight miles an hour. there is a gentle slope of the sides from the water's edge to the base of the turret, so that any other shot than a plunging one would be glanced off. as the ships have not yet been tried in battle, their advantages are only theoretical."
the "dreadnought"—type of the "peter the great."
frank asked how many officers and men were employed in the navy of the czar.
"from the latest reports at hand," the doctor answered, "there are twenty-nine admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals, four hundred and four captains, and nine hundred and thirty-four lieutenants and midshipmen. seventy-six admirals, one hundred and forty captains, and fifty lieutenants are employed on shore duty, and there are thirty-five captains and thirty-nine lieutenants and midshipmen serving in lines of commercial steamers subsidized by the government; one thousand and ninety-four pilots, engineers, artillerists, and others complete the official list, and the men before the mast number twenty-four thousand five hundred and twelve. the sailors are obtained by conscription or by voluntary enlistment—generally the former—and required to serve nine years. seven years of this period are in active service, and two years in the reserve, whence the men may be called out in case of war."
"please tell us something about the russian army," said fred, "as the army and navy are very closely related."
"i think you have had enough of statistics for one day," doctor bronson replied, "and if they are all in your journals your readers may be inclined[pg 142] to skip them. but at the risk of being tedious you cannot omit saying something about the military and naval forces of a nation which is the most thoroughly military and naval power of modern times. there is no throne in europe more dependent upon the weapons of war than is that of russia. take away the army and navy, and russia would follow the fate of poland, and be speedily dismembered by her neighbors. england, france, germany, and austria would have made an end of russia long ago but for the resisting power of which she is capable."
frank and fred declared that they would like to hear then and there about the army, and so the doctor continued:
"the army of russia previous to 1874 was drawn entirely from the classes of artisans and peasants by means of a conscription and the enrolment of the sons of soldiers. in that year a new law was approved by the emperor making all men who had completed their twenty-first year, and were not physically exempt, liable to service. the purchase of substitutes is not permitted by the new law; each man drawn by the conscription is required to pass six years in active service and nine years in the reserve, making a total of fifteen years in all. while in the reserve the men are liable to be called out only in case of war, and if so called out, the younger[pg 143] are put into active service in the field, while the older ones are employed for garrisoning forts and other light work."
"don't they have any exemption for the sons of rich men?" one of the youths inquired.
grenadier. chasseur of the guard. fifer of the guard. dragoon. cuirassier. hussar.
the russian army—regular troops.
"theoretically there is none," the doctor answered; "but in order to cover such cases, and particularly to provide officers for the army, it is arranged that young men with a fair education may be enrolled as volunteers for short terms during and from their seventeenth year of age. when their volunteer service is completed they may pass into the reserve, or be subjected to an examination for commissions as officers either in the[pg 144] active army or the reserve. in the reserve, whether as officers or privates, they are liable to be called for duty any time before their thirty-sixth year."
fred asked what proportion of the male population was taken for the army every year by means of the conscription.
"as before stated, every able-bodied man is liable," was the reply; "but it is generally found that a conscription of four in a thousand will produce from ninety thousand to one hundred thousand men. on a peace[pg 145] footing the active army contains about twenty thousand officers and five hundred and thirty thousand men; the reserve adds eight thousand and one hundred thousand to these figures respectively, so that the total peace footing is twenty-eight thousand officers and six hundred and thirty thousand men."
"and how much is the war footing?"
"the war footing, according to the latest figures, to give it exactly, is 41,551 officers and 1,176,353 men. add to this the whole able-bodied militia liable to be called into service in case of necessity, and the available war forces of russia amount to about 3,200,000. on the peace footing, the army has 129,736 horses and 1844 guns, which are increased in time of war to 366,354 horses and 3778 guns. in 1883 a census of the horses in fifty-eight provinces of european russia showed that there were nearly fifteen millions of these animals fit for service in case of need."
cossack lancers and russian guard-house.
one of the youths wished to know something about the cossacks, and whether they formed a part of the army or not.
"the cossack is an irregular soldier," the doctor replied, "though in some cases he is not a soldier at all. the origin of the cossacks is unknown, some claiming that they belong to the tartar, and others to the russian race. the probability is that they are a combination of the two. they were first heard of in the tenth century, in the valley of the don river; in the wars of russia with the turks and tartars, about the fifteenth century, they showed a great deal of bravery and an excellent organization of a semi-military character.
"they are more russian than tartar in their language, religion, and customs. the rulers of russia have not always found affairs running smoothly between themselves and the cossacks, and when the latter felt they had not been properly treated they were not slow to rebel. a revolt was generally followed by an emigration of the cossacks into the tartar country to the east, and in nearly every instance this emigration resulted in the addition of new territory to russia."
"i believe i have read that the conquest of siberia was accomplished in this way," said one of the youths.
"you are right," was the reply, "and the whole conquest hardly cost anything to the government. about three hundred years ago a tribe of don cossacks rebelled, and under the guidance of yermak, their hetman, or leader, crossed the ural mountains into asia. they began a career of conquest, which was pushed so rapidly that in less than seventy years they and their descendants had carried their banner to the shores of the okhotsk sea. in the early part of their career they offered the conquered[pg 146] territory to the czar, and received in return a pardon for their misdeeds on the don. history furnishes no parallel to this conquest, which was made by a few hundred outlaws, and carried to a successful end with little assistance from others and no support from the government. but to return to the cossacks of to-day:
leaguin. cossack of the don. circassian. tartar cossack of the crimea. cossack of the caucasus. cossack of the ural.
the russian army—irregular troops.
"the cossacks are a race of freemen. with only a few exceptions, none of them have ever been serfs. the whole land where they live belongs to them in common, and they have equal rights in hunting and fishing. they pay no taxes to government, but in place of taxes are required[pg 147] to give a certain number of days' service in each year. every cossack feeds and equips himself at his own expense, and provides and feeds his horse. if called to serve outside the boundaries of his own country, he receives rations for himself and horse and a small amount of pay; but this ceases when he returns to his own land. the cossacks have their own officers, which were formerly chosen by themselves, but are now appointed by the government, the latter usually being careful to send officers such as the cossacks approve.
"the military organization of the cossacks is in ten great divisions called 'woisskos,' that of the don being the largest. each woissko furnishes, according to its population, a certain number of regiments fully armed and equipped, and constantly under military discipline. these regiments must be prepared to march for active service ten days after being notified. altogether in time of war the cossacks of the various parts of the empire, available for war service, are about one hundred and fifty thousand men.
"they are splendid horsemen, and their best service is as cavalry. they can endure hunger, cold, and fatigue beyond ordinary soldiers, and are very troublesome to an enemy. in the retreat of napoleon's army from moscow they made great havoc, and many thousands of french soldiers fell beneath the cossack lance and sabre. they have an undeserved reputation for cruelty, as they are probably no worse, and certainly no better, than other kinds of soldiers. war at its best is a cruel business, and in no age of the world has it been the custom for armies to refrain from hurting their enemies when it was in their power to do so."
this conversation occupied most of the time while the boat was steaming from cronstadt to st. petersburg. seated near our friends was an officer whose coat did not show any buttons. it was fastened with hooks like those on a lady's dress, and frank called attention to its peculiarity.
doctor bronson explained that the officer was of the cossack branch of the service, this being the distinguishing feature of the cossack uniform. the cossack soldier wears a sheepskin coat, fastened with a girdle at the waist. he abhors buttons, and the uniform of the officers is made to conform to their tastes.
on the lower deck of the boat was a squad of soldiers, under command of a sergeant, who had probably been to cronstadt on some official duty, and were now returning. fred called attention to the singular hats worn by the soldiers, each hat having a high plate of brass in front, and reminding the youths of the hats worn by the soldiers in the comic opera of the "grand-duchess of gerolstein."
[pg 148]
"it is not unlike a coal-scuttle in shape," said fred, "and must be an uncomfortable piece of head-gear."
"that is a regiment which was organized in the time of the emperor paul," said the doctor, "and the design of the hat was made by him—at least that is what a russian officer told me. observe that there is a perforation in the brass of each hat, as though made by a bullet, and some of the hats have two or three holes.
grand-duke michael.
"the tradition is," continued the doctor, "that the regiment once showed cowardice when brought face to face with the french invaders during the war of 1812. in the next battle they were put in the front, and kept there; half their number were killed, and nearly every hat was perforated by a bullet. since that time the helmets are preserved just as they were when the battle ended. when a new helmet is ordered to replace an old one, it is perforated just as was its predecessor. hence the curious appearance of the soldiers of the grenadier regiment organized by paul.
"the discipline of the russian army is severe, and there are no better regiments, either for parade or fighting purposes, than those stationed in the neighborhood of the great cities. reviews of the army are held frequently. when the emperor goes in person to the grand review every year the sight is a magnificent one.
"the russian imperial family is full of soldierly qualities, which is[pg 149] not at all strange when we remember their training. sometimes it is pushed to an extreme degree. the grand-duke michael, brother of the emperor nicholas, is said to have been one of the most rigid disciplinarians ever known; and whenever he inspected a division, not a button, or even the point of a mustache, escaped his notice. parades were his delight, and he could ride at full gallop along the front of a line and detect the least irregularity. he used to say,
"'i detest war; it interferes with parades, and soils the uniforms.'
"he disliked the cossacks because they did not appear well at reviews; in his eyes their excellent fighting qualities were of minor importance.
"the cossacks carry their cartridges in a row of pockets on the breasts of their coats, and not in cartridge-boxes, as do other soldiers. the grand-duke thought a soldier's uniform was incomplete without a cartridge-box, probably for the reason that it gave him a certain amount of work to keep it clean and bright. this was another reason for his dislike of the irregular troops, which form such an effective arm of the service in time of war."
the steamer deposited its passengers at the quay near admiralty square, and our friends again trod the soil of st. petersburg, after an interesting and instructive day in the environs of the city. frank and fred devoted the evening to writing out what they had learned during the trip to peterhof and cronstadt, and especially to making notes upon the army and navy of russia. to refresh their memories, they referred to a copy of "the statesman's year-book," which happened to be in the room, and said they would cordially recommend it to others who might seek similar information.
[pg 150]
iron-clad steamer of the baltic fleet.
