keeping in mind our view of palestine as an oasis, we naturally turn at once to the thought of the waters that have retrieved it from the desert. by far the most conspicuous of these is the jordan, flowing down a long course to its deep-dug grave in the dead sea. at whatever point we approach that great valley the eye is inevitably led along it northward to the white hermon, whose great “breastplate” shines over all the land. that mountain, and the lebanons of which it is the southern outpost, are the real makers of palestine.
there was a beautiful poetry of hermon which from earliest times made it a sacrament of sweet thoughts to israel. perhaps the sweetest thought it gave her was that of dew. in every part of that land of clear skies, a heavy dew lies upon the ground at sunrise. poetic feeling, undertaking the work of science, interpreted this dew as hermon’s gift, so that “the dew that descended on the mountains of zion” was “the dew of hermon” (psalm cxxxiii. 3). the meteorology is faulty, but the larger idea is true. the cool and glistening{52} snow-field, more than a hundred miles away from zion, does indeed send out and receive again the waters that refresh the land in an endless round. “the abana dies in the marsh of ateibeh, yielding its spirit to the sun, as jordan dies in the dead sea, and, rising into clouds again, both of them wafted to the snow-peaks where they were born, they pour down their old waters in a current ever new, in that circuit of life and death which god has ordained for all.”[8]
so conspicuous are these two rivers that we almost need to remind ourselves that they are not the only waters of israel. there are several perennial streams in syria, of which something will be said presently; but the list of these by no means exhausts the stores of water in the land. great stretches of the country are apparently waterless, especially in the south, and yet water is almost everywhere, underground. in many parts the soil and surface-rock are soft, lying on a hard bed-rock at various depths below. accordingly we find that one of the most mysterious and characteristic features of the south country is its underground waters.[9] springs and streamlets find their way through fissures or filter through porous stone to the harder rock below, and flow along subterranean channels there. zangwill quotes an older authority for the somewhat startling statement that “the entire plain of sharon seems to cover a vast subterranean river, and this inexhaustible source of wealth underlies the whole territory of the{53} philistines.” putting the ear to any crack in the sunburnt clay of the surface, in certain parts, one may hear the subdued growl and murmur of the waters underneath. trees flourish in places where there is no water apparent, their roots bathing in unseen streams, and drawing life and freshness from them. one can well understand the feelings of awe with which primitive people regarded these mysterious nether springs. they did not connect them with the idea of rain from above, as modern science does, but believed that they had forced their way up from “the great deep,” which was supposed to underlie the earth, and into which the roots of the mountains were thrust far down like gigantic anchors of the world. some of the rivers of damascus are also underground, “and may often be seen and heard through holes in the surface.”[10] jerusalem is a waterless city, whose famous pools are tanks for rain-water. its one spring is that strange intermittent one which overflows from the well of the virgin through hezekiah’s aqueduct to the pool of siloam. yet there are legends that beneath the sacred rock which the mosque of omar covers there is a subterranean torrent; and that the rushing of hidden waters has been heard at times below the massive stones of the damascus gate of the city.
these underground waters have given to palestine a still more interesting feature at the points where her greatest rivers rise. this is the sudden emergence of full-bodied streams from the ground. these rivers{54} have, so to speak, no infancy. their springs are not little toy fountains with trickling rivulets. they bound into the world full-grown, with a rush and fury which is perhaps unparalleled in any other land. this inspiring and suggestive phenomenon has not been without its effect on the national thought and imagination. in the midst of one of the most gloriously forceful passages of isaiah (chap. xxxv.) the vigour and impetuousness of the prophecy finds its climax in the sudden leap of waters which “break out” in the wilderness, and which are described in the same breath as the first glad leap of the restored lame man, leaping “as an hart.” when moses in his blessing of the tribes speaks of dan “leaping from bashan,” he refers to that wonderful spot where jordan, in the tribe of dan, leaps up from below hermon. matthew arnold, had he chanced to think of it, might have seen in his delight in full and rushing streams another link connecting him with the hebrew race with which he so quaintly claims affinity.
the south country keeps its rivers for the most part below ground, though even there considerable streams suddenly break out. conder describes deep blue pools of fresh water near antipatris which “well up close beneath the hillock surrounded by tall canes and willows, rushes and grass.”[11] yet the greatest outbursts are in the north. one traveller describes a river-source in lebanon as an abyss of seething black waters, into which he rolled large stones, only to see them presently{55} reappear, flung up like corks from the depths. at one of its sources the abana bursts from the masonry of some ancient temples “a pure and copious river, rushing into light at once as if free.”
it is at hermon that we find the true centre of the water supply of palestine. parts of it are under snow all the year round, and it gives off some thirty streams flowing in every direction. not one of these streams reaches the mediterranean. they flow forth only to evaporate sooner or later in some inland morass or sea, and to return in vapour that will be condensed again by the snows of hermon. conder describes one of these in the north, whose water “rushes out suddenly with a roaring noise from a cavern” in winter, and transforms the plain below into a lake. but the great work of hermon is the jordan, two of whose three sources leap up from its roots. the most striking of these is that of banias, which jewish tradition names as one of the three springs of palestine which “remained not closed up after the flood.” on the crest of a spur of hermon stands the ruined castle of subeibeh, one of the noblest ruins in the world. from the castle you descend 1400 feet to the village of banias, the ancient caesarea philippi. the descent, over basalt boulders whose interstices are filled for the most part with thorn-bushes, is said in the guide-books to be practicable for horses. one wonders how long the horses are supposed to survive the journey! the view across and down the jordan valley is indescribably grand. near the foot the path curves round the top of a precipice and doubles back on a{56} lower level to a white-washed mohammedan weli, or praying-house. just below, as you look down from the weli, a large cavern is seen, with niches beautifully carved in the rocks beside it. on one of these niches is the inscription “to pan and the nymphs,” and on another the names “augustus and augustina.” here, most likely on the site of a prehistoric holy place of the semites, stood the roman temple which herod built in honour of augustus. nor is it wonderful that these and so many other faiths have counted this a sacred place; for jordan used to pour forth from that cavern, clear and full-bodied. now the old cave-channel is choked up with debris, and jordan forces its way to light in many smaller fountains among the stones and earth of the open space below, which is coloured by long trails of slime. within a few yards the streams unite in a rich green pool, with reeds and luxuriant water-growth. the second source of jordan is even more impressive. it is at tell-el-kadi, some two miles west from banias. on the western side of this tell, on which there are traces and ruins of an ancient city, there is a thicket of rank undergrowth, from beneath whose lowest branches and creepers the river suddenly appears, spreads immediately into a wide pool, and within a hundred yards is racing violently south in foaming rapids. the pool was reported to be bottomless, but the irrepressible little canoe rob roy was launched upon its boiling waters, and the depth proved to be but five feet!
jordan is a river worth much study, interesting from{57}
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the golden, or beautiful, gate, from the garden of gethsemane.
the well is in the upper part of the garden of gethsemane.
every point of view—geographical, historical, religious.[12] changing in colour, as the floods wash down their various soils to it, it tumbles and rushes south through a stretch of some 137 miles without a single cascade till it sweeps, with strong and level current, into the dead sea. at banias its height above the mediterranean is about 1000 feet, but the extraordinary valley is chiselled on a running slope down to the depths of the earth. clouds have been seen sweeping above its bed 500 feet below the level of the ocean. the dead sea level is 1290 feet below the mediterranean; its bottom, at the deepest part, is as deep again. spanned by a few bridges, of which only one or two are now entire, the river’s course is for the most part through solitudes without inhabitants, or tenanted but by a few half-savage people. the valley is alternately wide and narrow, swelling out in five broad expanses, of which the two northern are lakes, and the other three are plains. from banias to the last confluence of the different head-streams is a distance of some seven miles through green land. soon after that point the river loses itself in a vast forest of impenetrable papyrus canes growing in shallow water, from which it emerges in a little lake or clear space half a mile lower. then it flows, a solemn and glassy stream, for some three miles and a half down a sharp-edged lane whose perpendicular banks are tall papyrus canes, till it glides silently out, a hundred feet in breadth, into lake{58} huleh. from huleh to the sea of galilee is ten miles, along the greater part of which the river tears through a narrow gorge. emerging clear and broad from the sea of galilee it soon begins its innumerable windings. a few streams flow into it perennially from east and west, and countless torrents after rain. in the north it quickens a poisonous soil into rank vegetation, and spreads its superfluous waters on steaming swamps, full of malaria. opposite shechem its clay is good for moulding, and the mounds which break the level are for the most part apparently the remains of old brickfields or brass foundries. as it descends to the broadest of its plains at jericho the valley falls into three distinct levels. from the hills a flat expanse of desolation spreads towards the river, till it falls in steep banks of 150 to 200 feet to the lower level of the “trench” down which the river flows in flood. finally, in the centre of this lies the ordinary channel, at whose banks the trees and undergrowth seem to crouch and kneel over the sullen brown stream.
there are other perennial rivers in syria, but their courses are short. the litany (leontes) rises between the lebanons a short distance north of the highest springs of jordan. for many miles the two flow in parallel courses, divided only by the little ridge of jebel-es-zoar. but before jordan has passed its new springs at banias, the litany has swept to the west in a sharp right angle, to pour itself into the ocean north of tyre. it is a fine stream, yellow with rich loam, but its bed is in the sharp angle of valleys whose{59} sides remind one of the screes of wastwater. its descent is so rapid that even if there were meadows in the bottoms of its gorges, it would hurry past them to pour its treasure of water and of soil alike into the thankless sea. the abana, rising in the same region as the springs of the other two, has a course of only some fifty miles. kishon, which waters the plain of esdraelon, is certainly the most generous in the matter of cultivated fields, but it is also the most treacherous. its fords are never certain, for great masses of sand and mud are shifted to and fro in the most unaccountable manner. the rest of the perennial rivers are either tributaries of the jordan, companions of the abana in its eastern course, or streams from carmel or the central mountain range, whose short course to the mediterranean is of little account.
as we think of these rivers flowing through a land which so sorely needs their help, we cannot but feel oppressed by a sense of waste that is almost tragic. there is no boat plying on any of them. most are, indeed, far too rapid for that, but not everywhere. the guide-book speaks of a steamer plying on the lower reaches of jordan; and the local story of oppression there—every district has its particular grievance—is of two boats that had been brought for the service of the monastery, and then confiscated by government. the only boats of any kind we saw on fresh water between hebron and damascus were two on the sea of galilee, manned by syrians in red jerseys,{60} on which the magic letters were inscribed, “cook.” in the old days it must have been very different. there is mention of a ferry-boat on the jordan in 2 sam. xix. 18, and in christ’s time there must have been a considerable fishing fleet on the lake. the trireme on the coins of gadara reminds us of roman vessels which sailed there for warlike purposes, and here and there you find a valley dammed across its breadth for the construction of an artificial lake, on which a naumachia or naval fight might add piquancy to the games. there is an island in the dead sea itself on which what are supposed to be ruins of a landing-stage are still visible, showing that long ago even these uncanny waters were not without their sailors. there used to be a wrecked boat in the ateibeh marsh from which three men had been drowned. the wreck of another boat was still visible some years ago under the surface of lake huleh. these wrecks are but too truthfully symbolic of the fate of men’s attempts to utilise the waters of israel. the abana, indeed, is utilised. never was river so wholly taken possession of by a city as abana by damascus. she flows into it—right into the heart of it—and disappears underground; she is led captive into a thousand fountains in public streets and the courts of private houses; she is sent in a thousand little channels to irrigate the gardens which surround it. all the more pitiful is her ending in that wild and haunted morass of ateibeh, where she yields up her waters to the desert and the sun.
the fate of jordan seems still more tragic. in the{61} far north his waters are indeed utilised to some small extent for irrigation, but for the vastly longer part of his course he does nothing but flee through the wilderness to the bitter sea in the south. dr. ross has strikingly summed up jordan’s career in the words: “so, in a valley which is thirsting for water, the jordan rushes along to an inglorious end.” yet that is only one aspect of the matter. jordan gave israel her last story of elijah and her first of christ’s ministry. neither association is of the kindly sort which a nation’s sentiment usually gathers round its rivers. there is, as it were, the glitter of fire from the prophet’s departure for ever lending to these brown waters a sort of unearthly grandeur. those fiery horses which bathed their feet here take the place of the gentle memories of generations of lovers or little children. yet that is true to the spirit of the river. to israel it stood for a very forceful and practical fact. their first crossing of jordan began their national life in palestine and cut them off from the desert. so, to the end, the jordan stood for this to them, and that was much. jordan created no great city as abana created damascus; but it streamed down the side of the east, flinging, as it were, a great arm round the land, claiming it from the desert, and proclaiming this to be oasis and the home of men. disraeli characteristically writes: “all the great things have been done by the little nations. it is the jordan and the ilyssus that have civilised the modern races.” and truly it is the jordan that is in great part responsible for the hebrew{62} share in that civilisation—not by his material gifts, indeed, which were ever ungenerously given and carelessly gathered, but by his sentiment of isolation and aloofness from the rest of the eastern world, to which we owe much that is best in our inheritance from israel.
for the homelier uses and gentler thoughts of israel’s waters we must turn to the lesser fountains and streams. there is, it is true, much disillusionment for the sentimentalist even here. remembering the sweet music in which they have been sung—the “song of the well” (“spring up, o well, sing ye unto it!”) or the “gently flowing waters” of the 23rd psalm—one expects the perfection of purity and freshness. early tradition has pictured the angel gabriel meeting with mary at the village spring of nazareth; nor is that the only syrian fountain by which the footsteps of angels have been traced. all the more trying is the reality. hideously tattooed women squat by the sweetest springs, fling filthy garments into them, and beat them with stones till the stream flows brown below them; or they toil wearily a mile or two away from their villages to fill the heavy water-pots, beasts of burden rather than mothers in israel. of cleanliness the natives have not the remotest idea. we used to see them filling their vessels from a stream where our horses were being washed down after their day’s ride, and they seemed on principle to choose a spot just below that where the horse was standing. often the water seemed calculated to assuage hunger rather than thirst. the natives drank it freely when it was mere{63} mud in solution; and even when it was clear, the glass bottles on the table sometimes presented the appearance of lively and well-stocked aquariums. our squeamishness was unintelligible even to our camp-servants, who drank in defiance large draughts of the water we refused. the landmarks of the hot journey are the pools where one may bathe, and the first sight of elisha’s fountain and the well of harod is refreshing to remember still. but one touch of the bottom mud sufficed to bring to the surface a gas which sent us posthaste to our stores of quinine—and yet the deliciousness of the plunge was worth the risk!
the spell of the fountains remains in spite of all, and no traveller wonders that the ancient men revered them as sacred places. israel exulted in the forcefulness of her larger rivers, but hardly knew their kindlier resources. her affection was kept for those wells and streamlets which flowed past her doors and made glad her cities. it is a land of dried-up torrent-beds, and no river made glad any city of god except at the seasons when god had filled it with his rain. in such a land a wayside well like jacob’s counts for more than our western imagination can realise. property in water was an older institution than property in land. these wayside wells and “sealed fountains” refreshed men from time immemorial in the very presence of their enemies. they were the choicest riches of their owners. the journey from south to north leads one ever more frequently in among such springs, but many towns of the south are built at places where there is abundance{64} of them. hebron has twelve little fountains; gaza fifteen. in samaria they burst forth in every valley, and the vale of nablus is a net-work of rivulets, springing, it is said, from no fewer than eighty sources. in galilee they are still more abundant. at khan minyeh, supposed by many to be the site of the ancient capernaum, the ruins are mostly those of aqueducts, and springs break forth and stream in little rivers everywhere.
the beauty and refreshing coolness of such fountains is very great. the dripping walls of the khan minyeh aqueducts are covered with magnificent bunches of maidenhair, whose fronds were the broadest we had ever seen. the well of harod, close by the stream where gideon tested his soldiers, is one of the loveliest spots imaginable. there is a little cave, where the pebbles shine up blue through the shallow water; ferns grow in its crannies, and at the side a clear spring, two feet broad and five inches deep, splashes into the pool from a recess entirely hidden by hanging maidenhair. nor is the natural beauty of these springs their only charm. when one remembers the days of old through which they flowed, and the men who stooped to drink of them so along ago, all that was most sacred and most heroic to one’s childhood lives again, and speaks to the heart. ay! and to the conscience too; for these were the springs that gave to bible men their metaphors of a fountain opened for sin and for uncleanness; this is the land in which it sprang up and from which it has flowed forth with cleansing and refreshment for the whole earth.{65}
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the lake of galilee, looking north from tiberias.
the road at the left of the picture is the main road to the north from tiberias.
