having said so much of st. peter’s, unquestionably the finest piece of modern architecture in rome, allow me to mention some of the best specimens of the ancient. i shall begin with the pantheon, which, though not the largest of the roman temples, is the most perfect which now remains. the temple of jupiter capitolinus, and the temple of peace, if we may trust to the accounts we have of the first, and to the ruins of the second, in the campo vaccino, were both much larger than the pantheon. in spite of the depredations which this last has sustained from goths, vandals, and popes, it still remains a beauteous monument of roman taste. the pavilion of the great altar, which stands under the cupola in st. peter’s, and the four wreathed pillars of corinthian brass which support it, were formed out of the spoils of the pantheon, which, after all, and with the weight of eighteen hundred years upon its head, has still a probability of outliving its proud rapacious rival. from the round form of this temple, it has obtained the name of rotunda. its height is a hundred and fifty feet, and its diameter nearly the same. within, it is divided into eight parts; the gate at which you enter forming one: the other seven compartments, if they may be so called, are each of them distinguished by two fluted corinthian pillars, and as many pilasters of giallo antico. the capitals and bases are of white marble; these support a circular entablature. the wall is perpendicular for half the height of the temple; it then slopes forward as it ascends, the circumference gradually diminishing, till it terminates in an opening of about twenty-five feet diameter. there are no windows; the central opening in the vault admitting a[415] sufficiency of light, has a much finer effect than windows could have had. no great inconveniency can happen from this opening. the conical form of the temple prevents the rain from falling near the walls where the altars now are, and where the statues of the gods were formerly placed. the rain which falls in the middle immediately drills through holes which perforate a large piece of porphyry that forms the centre of the pavement, the whole of which consists of various pieces of marble, agate, and other materials, which have been picked up from the ruins, and now compose a singular kind of mosaic work.
the portico was added by marcus agrippa, the son-in-law of augustus. it is supported by sixteen pillars of granite, five feet in diameter, and of a single piece each. upon the frieze, in the front, is the following inscription in large capitals:
m. agrippa l. f. consul tertium fecit.
some are of opinion, that the pantheon is much more ancient than the augustan age, and that the portico, which is the only part those antiquarians admit to be the work of agrippa, though beautiful in itself, does not correspond with the simplicity of the temple.
as the pantheon is the most entire, the amphitheatre of vespasian is the most stupendous, monument of antiquity in rome. it was finished by his son titus, and obtained the name of colosseum, afterwards corrupted into coliseum, from a colossal statue of apollo which was placed before it. this vast structure was built of tiburtine stone, which is remarkably durable. if the public buildings of the ancient romans had met with no more inveterate enemy than time, we might, at this day, contemplate the greater number in all their original perfection; they were formed for the admiration of much remoter ages than the present. this amphitheatre in particular might have[417] stood entire for two thousand years to come: for what are the slow corrosions of time, in comparison of the rapid destruction from the fury of barbarians, the zeal of bigots, and the avarice of popes and cardinals? the first depredation made on this stupendous building, was by the inhabitants of rome themselves, at that time greater goths than their conqueror. we are told, they applied to theodoric, whose court was then at ravenna, for liberty to take the stones of this amphitheatre for some public work they were carrying on. the marble cornices, the friezes, and other ornaments of this building, have been carried away, at various times, to adorn palaces; and the stones have been taken to build churches, and sometimes to repair the walls of rome, the most useless work of all. for of what importance are walls to a city, without a garrison, and whose most powerful artillery affects not the bodies, but only the minds, of men? about one-half of the external circuit still remains, from which,[418] and the ruins of the other parts, a pretty exact idea may be formed of the original structure. by a computation made by mr. byres, it could contain eighty-five thousand spectators, making a convenient allowance for each. fourteen chapels are now erected within side, representing the stages of our saviour’s passion. this expedient of consecrating them into christian chapels and churches, has saved some of the finest remains of heathen magnificence from utter destruction.
our admiration of the romans is tempered with horror, when we reflect on the use formerly made of this immense building, and the dreadful scenes which were acted on the arena; where not only criminals condemned to death, but also prisoners taken in war, were obliged to butcher each other, for the entertainment of an inhuman populace. the combats of gladiators were at first used in rome at funerals only, where prisoners were obliged[419] to assume that profession, and fight before the tombs of deceased generals or magistrates, in imitation of the barbarous custom of the greeks, of sacrificing captives at the tombs of their heroes.
this horrid piece of magnificence, which, at first, was exhibited only on the death of consuls, and men of the highest distinction, came gradually to be claimed by every citizen who was sufficiently rich to defray the expence; and as the people’s fondness for these combats increased every day, they were no longer confined to funeral solemnities, but became customary on days of public rejoicing, and were exhibited, at amazing expence, by some generals after victories. in the progress of riches, luxury, and vice, it became a profession in rome to deal in gladiators. men called lanist? made it their business to purchase prisoners and slaves, to have them instructed in the use of the various weapons; and when any roman chose to amuse the[420] people with their favourite show, or to entertain a select company of his own friends upon any particular occasion, he applied to the lanist?; who, for a fixed price, furnished him with as many pairs of those unhappy combatants as he required. they had various names given to them, according to the different manner in which they were armed. towards the end of the republic, some of the rich and powerful citizens had great numbers of gladiators of their own, who were daily exercised by the lanist?, and always kept ready for fighting when ordered by their proprietor. those who were often victorious, or had the good fortune to please their masters, had their liberty granted them, on which they generally quitted their profession; though it sometimes happened, that those who were remarkably skilful, continued it, either from vanity or poverty, even after they had obtained their freedom; and the applause bestowed on those gladiators, had the effect of inducing men born free, to[421] choose this for a profession, which they exercised for money, till age impaired their strength and address. they then hung up their arms in the temple of hercules, and appeared no more on the arena.
————veianius armis
herculis ad postem fixis latet abdicus agro,
ne populum extrema toties exoret arena.
there were many amphitheatres at rome, in other towns of italy, and in many provinces of the empire; but this of vespasian was the largest that ever was built. that at verona is the next in size in italy, and the remains of the amphitheatre at n?mes, in the south of france, prove, that it was the most magnificent structure of this kind in any of the roman provinces. the romans were so excessively fond of these exhibitions, that wherever colonies were established, it was found requisite to give public shews of this kind, to induce the emigrants to remain in their new country: and in the provinces where[422] it was thought necessary that a considerable body of troops should remain constantly, structures of this kind were erected, at vast labour and expence, and were found the best means of inducing the young officers to submit cheerfully to a long absence from the capital, and of preventing the common soldiers from desertion. the profusion of human blood, which was shed in the arena, by the cruel prodigality of the emperors, and the refinements which were invented to augment the barbarous pleasure of the spectators, are proofs of the dreadful degree of corruption and depravity to which human nature is capable of attaining, even among a learned and enlightened people, when unrestrained by the mild precepts of a benevolent religion. we are told, that the gladiators bred for the use of particular patricians, as well as those kept for hire by the lanist?, were, for some weeks before they appeared in the arena, fed upon such succulent diet, as would soonest fill their veins, that they[423] might bleed freely at every wound. they were instructed by the lanist?, not only in the art of fighting, but also in the most graceful manner of dying; and when those wretched men felt themselves mortally wounded, they assumed such attitudes as they knew pleased the beholders; and they seemed to receive pleasure themselves from the applause bestowed upon them in their last moments.
when a gladiator was thrown by his antagonist to the ground, and directly laid down his arms, it was a sign that he could resist no longer, and declared himself vanquished; but still his life depended on the spectators. if they were pleased with his performance, or, in a merciful disposition, they held up their hands, with the thumb folded down, and the life of the man was spared; but if they where in the humour to see him die, they held up the hand clenched, with the thumb only erect. as soon as the prostrate victim[424] beheld that fatal signal, he knew all hopes of life were vain, and immediately presented his breast to the sword of his adversary, who, whatever his own inclinations might be, was obliged to put him to death instantly.
as these combats formed the supreme pleasure of the inhabitants of rome, the most cruel of their emperors were sometimes the most popular; merely because they gratified the people, without restraint, in their favourite amusement. when marcus aurelius thought it necessary, for the public service, to recruit his army from the gladiators of rome; it raised more discontent among the populace, than many of the wildest pranks of caligula. in the times of some of the emperors, the lower class of roman citizens were certainly as worthless a set of men as ever existed; stained with all the vices which arise from idleness and dependence; living upon the largesses of the great; passing their whole time in the circus and[425] amphitheatres, where every sentiment of humanity was annihilated within their breasts, and where the agonies and torments of their fellow-creatures were their chief pastime. that no occasion might be lost of indulging this savage taste of the populace, criminals were condemned to fight with wild beasts in the arena, or were exposed, unarmed, to be torn in pieces by them; at other times, they were blindfolded, and in that condition obliged to cut and slaughter each other. so that, instead of victims solemnly sacrificed to public justice, they seemed to be brought in as buffoons to raise the mirth of the spectators.
the practice of domestic slavery had also a great influence in rendering the romans of a cruel and haughty character. masters could punish their slaves in what manner, and to what degree, they thought proper. it was as late as the emperor adrian’s time, before any law was made, ordaining that a master who should put his slave to[426] death without sufficient cause, should be tried for his life. the usual porter at the gate of a great man’s house in ancient rome, was a chained slave. the noise of whips and lashes resounded from one house to another, at the time when it was customary for the masters of families to take an account of the conduct of their servants. this cruel disposition, as is the case wherever domestic slavery prevails, extended to the gentle sex, and hardened the mild tempers of the women. what a picture has juvenal drawn of the toilet of a roman lady!
nam si constituit, solitoque decentius optat
ornari —— ——
componit crinem laceratis ipsa capillis,
nuda humeros psecas infelix, nudisque mamillis,
altior hic quare cincinnus? taurea punit.
continuo flexi crimen facinusque capilli.
it was customary for avaricious masters, to send their infirm and sick slaves, to an island in the tiber, where there was a temple of ?sculapius; if the god pleased[427] to recover them, the master took them back to his family; if they died, no farther inquiry was made about them. the emperor claudius put a check to this piece of inhumanity, by ordaining, that every sick slave, thus abandoned by his master, should be declared free when he recovered his health.
from these observations, are we to infer, that the ancient romans were naturally of a more cruel turn of mind, than the present inhabitants of europe? or is there not reason to believe that, in the same circumstances, modern nations would act in the same manner? do we not perceive, that the practice of domestic slavery has, at this day, a strong tendency to render men haughty, capricious, and cruel. such, i am afraid, is the nature of man, that if he has power without controul, he will use it without justice; absolute power has a strong tendency to make good men bad, and never fails to make bad men worse.
it was an observation of the late mareschal saxe, that in all the contests between the army waggoners and their horses, the waggoners were in the wrong; which he imputed to their having absolute authority over the horses. in the qualities of the head and heart, and in most other respects, he thought the men and horses on an equality. caprice is a vice of the temper, which increases faster than any other by indulgence; it often spoils the best qualities of the heart, and, in particular situations, degenerates into the most unsufferable tyranny. the first appearance of it in young minds ought to be opposed with firmness, and prevented from farther progress, otherwise our future attempts to arrest it may be fruitless; for
mobilitate viget, viresque acquirit eundo.
the combats in the amphitheatres were, as i have already said, introduced by degrees at rome. the custom of making prisoners fight around the funeral piles of[429] deceased heroes, was a refinement on a more barbarous practice; and the romans, no doubt, valued themselves on their humanity, in not butchering their prisoners in cold blood, as was the custom in the earliest ages of greece. the institution of obliging criminals to fight in the arena, and thus giving them a chance for their lives, would also appear to them a very merciful improvement on the common manner of execution. the grossest sophistry will pass on men’s understandings, when it is used in support of measures to which they are already inclined. and when we consider the eagerness with which the populace of every country behold the accidental combats which occur in the streets, we need not be surprised to find, that when once the combats of gladiators were permitted among the roman populace, on whatever pretext, the taste for them would daily increase, till it erased every idea of compunction from their breasts, and became their ruling passion. the patricians,[430] enriched by the pillage of kingdoms, and knowing that their power at rome, and consequently all over the world, depended on the favour and suffrages of the people, naturally sought popularity by gratifying their favourite taste. afterwards the emperors might imagine, that such shows would keep the citizens from reflecting on their lost liberties, or the enormities of the new form of government; and, exclusive of every political reason, many of them, from the barbarous disposition of their own minds, would take as much pleasure in the scenes acted on the arena, as the most savage of the vulgar.
while we express horror and indignation at the fondness which the romans displayed for the bloody combats of the amphitheatre, let us reflect, whether this proceeded from any peculiar cruelty of disposition inherent in that people, or belongs to mankind in general, let us reflect, whether it is probable, that the people of any other[431] nation would not be gradually led, by the same degrees, to an equal passion for such horrid entertainments. let us consider, whether there is reason to suspect that those who arm cocks with steel, and take pleasure in beholding the spirited little animals cut one another to death, would not take the same, or superior delight, in obliging men to slaughter each other if they had the power.—and what restrains them? is there no reason to believe, that the influence of a purer religion, and brighter example, than were known to the heathen world, prevents mankind from those enormities now, which were permitted and countenanced formerly? as soon as the benevolent precepts of christianity were received by the romans as the laws of the deity, the prisoners and the slaves were treated with humanity, and the bloody exhibitions in the amphitheatres were abolished.
