we cannot designate the intrinsic substance of socratic culture more distinctly than by calling it the culture of the opera: for it is in this department that culture has expressed itself with special na?veté concerning its aims and perceptions, which is sufficiently surprising when we compare the genesis of the opera and the facts of operatic development with the eternal truths of the apollonian and dionysian. i call to mind first of all the origin of the stilo rappresentativo and the recitative. is it credible that this thoroughly externalised operatic music, incapable of devotion, could be received and cherished with enthusiastic favour, as a re-birth, as it were, of all true music, by the very age in which the ineffably sublime and sacred music of palestrina had originated? and who, on the other hand, would think of making only the diversion-craving luxuriousness of those florentine circles and the vanity of their dramatic singers responsible for the love of the opera which spread with such rapidity? that in the same age, even among the same people, this passion for a half-musical mode of speech should awaken alongside of the vaulted structure of palestrine harmonies which the entire christian middle age had been building up, i can explain[pg 143] to myself only by a co-operating extra-artistic tendency in the essence of the recitative.

the listener, who insists on distinctly hearing the words under the music, has his wishes met by the singer in that he speaks rather than sings, and intensifies the pathetic expression of the words in this half-song: by this intensification of the pathos he facilitates the understanding of the words and surmounts the remaining half of the music. the specific danger which now threatens him is that in some unguarded moment he may give undue importance to music, which would forthwith result in the destruction of the pathos of the speech and the distinctness of the words: while, on the other hand, he always feels himself impelled to musical delivery and to virtuose exhibition of vocal talent. here the "poet" comes to his aid, who knows how to provide him with abundant opportunities for lyrical interjections, repetitions of words and sentences, etc.,—at which places the singer, now in the purely musical element, can rest himself without minding the words. this alternation of emotionally impressive, yet only half-sung speech and wholly sung interjections, which is characteristic of the stilo rappresentativo, this rapidly changing endeavour to operate now on the conceptional and representative faculty of the hearer, now on his musical sense, is something so thoroughly unnatural and withal so intrinsically contradictory both to the apollonian and dionysian artistic impulses, that one has to infer an origin of the recitative foreign to all artistic instincts. the[pg 144] recitative must be defined, according to this description, as the combination of epic and lyric delivery, not indeed as an intrinsically stable combination which could not be attained in the case of such totally disparate elements, but an entirely superficial mosaic conglutination, such as is totally unprecedented in the domain of nature and experience. but this was not the opinion of the inventors of the recitative: they themselves, and their age with them, believed rather that the mystery of antique music had been solved by this stilo rappresentativo, in which, as they thought, the only explanation of the enormous influence of an orpheus, an amphion, and even of greek tragedy was to be found. the new style was regarded by them as the re-awakening of the most effective music, the old greek music: indeed, with the universal and popular conception of the homeric world as the primitive world, they could abandon themselves to the dream of having descended once more into the paradisiac beginnings of mankind, wherein music also must needs have had the unsurpassed purity, power, and innocence of which the poets could give such touching accounts in their pastoral plays. here we see into the internal process of development of this thoroughly modern variety of art, the opera: a powerful need here acquires an art, but it is a need of an un?sthetic kind: the yearning for the idyll, the belief in the prehistoric existence of the artistic, good man. the recitative was regarded as the rediscovered language of this primitive man; the opera as the recovered land of this[pg 145] idyllically or heroically good creature, who in every action follows at the same time a natural artistic impulse, who sings a little along with all he has to say, in order to sing immediately with full voice on the slightest emotional excitement. it is now a matter of indifference to us that the humanists of those days combated the old ecclesiastical representation of man as naturally corrupt and lost, with this new-created picture of the paradisiac artist: so that opera may be understood as the oppositional dogma of the good man, whereby however a solace was at the same time found for the pessimism to which precisely the seriously-disposed men of that time were most strongly incited, owing to the frightful uncertainty of all conditions of life. it is enough to have perceived that the intrinsic charm, and therefore the genesis, of this new form of art lies in the gratification of an altogether un?sthetic need, in the optimistic glorification of man as such, in the conception of the primitive man as the man naturally good and artistic: a principle of the opera which has gradually changed into a threatening and terrible demand, which, in face of the socialistic movements of the present time, we can no longer ignore. the "good primitive man" wants his rights: what paradisiac prospects!

i here place by way of parallel still another equally obvious confirmation of my view that opera is built up on the same principles as our alexandrine culture. opera is the birth of the theoretical man, of the critical layman, not of the artist: one of the most surprising facts in the[pg 146] whole history of art. it was the demand of thoroughly unmusical hearers that the words must above all be understood, so that according to them a re-birth of music is only to be expected when some mode of singing has been discovered in which the text-word lords over the counterpoint as the master over the servant. for the words, it is argued, are as much nobler than the accompanying harmonic system as the soul is nobler than the body. it was in accordance with the laically unmusical crudeness of these views that the combination of music, picture and expression was effected in the beginnings of the opera: in the spirit of this ?sthetics the first experiments were also made in the leading laic circles of florence by the poets and singers patronised there. the man incapable of art creates for himself a species of art precisely because he is the inartistic man as such. because he does not divine the dionysian depth of music, he changes his musical taste into appreciation of the understandable word-and-tone-rhetoric of the passions in the stilo rappresentativo, and into the voluptuousness of the arts of song; because he is unable to behold a vision, he forces the machinist and the decorative artist into his service; because he cannot apprehend the true nature of the artist, he conjures up the "artistic primitive man" to suit his taste, that is, the man who sings and recites verses under the influence of passion. he dreams himself into a time when passion suffices to generate songs and poems: as if emotion had ever been able to create anything artistic. the postulate of the opera is a false[pg 147] belief concerning the artistic process, in fact, the idyllic belief that every sentient man is an artist. in the sense of this belief, opera is the expression of the taste of the laity in art, who dictate their laws with the cheerful optimism of the theorist.

should we desire to unite in one the two conceptions just set forth as influential in the origin of opera, it would only remain for us to speak of an idyllic tendency of the opera: in which connection we may avail ourselves exclusively of the phraseology and illustration of schiller.[22] "nature and the ideal," he says, "are either objects of grief, when the former is represented as lost, the latter unattained; or both are objects of joy, in that they are represented as real. the first case furnishes the elegy in its narrower signification, the second the idyll in its widest sense." here we must at once call attention to the common characteristic of these two conceptions in operatic genesis, namely, that in them the ideal is not regarded as unattained or nature as lost agreeably to this sentiment, there was a primitive age of man when he lay close to the heart of nature, and, owing to this naturalness, had attained the ideal of mankind in a paradisiac goodness and artist-organisation: from which perfect primitive man all of us were supposed to be descended; whose faithful copy we were in fact still said to be: only we had to cast off some few things in order to recognise ourselves once more as this primitive man, on the strength of a voluntary renunciation of superfluous learnedness, of super-abundant[pg 148] culture. it was to such a concord of nature and the ideal, to an idyllic reality, that the cultured man of the renaissance suffered himself to be led back by his operatic imitation of greek tragedy; he made use of this tragedy, as dante made use of vergil, in order to be led up to the gates of paradise: while from this point he went on without assistance and passed over from an imitation of the highest form of greek art to a "restoration of all things," to an imitation of man's original art-world. what delightfully na?ve hopefulness of these daring endeavours, in the very heart of theoretical culture!—solely to be explained by the comforting belief, that "man-in-himself" is the eternally virtuous hero of the opera, the eternally fluting or singing shepherd, who must always in the end rediscover himself as such, if he has at any time really lost himself; solely the fruit of the optimism, which here rises like a sweetishly seductive column of vapour out of the depth of the socratic conception of the world.

the features of the opera therefore do not by any means exhibit the elegiac sorrow of an eternal loss, but rather the cheerfulness of eternal rediscovery, the indolent delight in an idyllic reality which one can at least represent to one's self each moment as real: and in so doing one will perhaps surmise some day that this supposed reality is nothing but a fantastically silly dawdling, concerning which every one, who could judge it by the terrible earnestness of true nature and compare it with the actual primitive scenes of the beginnings of mankind, would have to call out with loathing: away with[pg 149] the phantom! nevertheless one would err if one thought it possible to frighten away merely by a vigorous shout such a dawdling thing as the opera, as if it were a spectre. he who would destroy the opera must join issue with alexandrine cheerfulness, which expresses itself so na?vely therein concerning its favourite representation; of which in fact it is the specific form of art. but what is to be expected for art itself from the operation of a form of art, the beginnings of which do not at all lie in the ?sthetic province; which has rather stolen over from a half-moral sphere into the artistic domain, and has been able only now and then to delude us concerning this hybrid origin? by what sap is this parasitic opera-concern nourished, if not by that of true art? must we not suppose that the highest and indeed the truly serious task of art—to free the eye from its glance into the horrors of night and to deliver the "subject" by the healing balm of appearance from the spasms of volitional agitations—will degenerate under the influence of its idyllic seductions and alexandrine adulation to an empty dissipating tendency, to pastime? what will become of the eternal truths of the dionysian and apollonian in such an amalgamation of styles as i have exhibited in the character of the stilo rappresentativo? where music is regarded as the servant, the text as the master, where music is compared with the body, the text with the soul? where at best the highest aim will be the realisation of a paraphrastic tone-painting, just as formerly in the new attic dithyramb? where music is[pg 150] completely alienated from its true dignity of being, the dionysian mirror of the world, so that the only thing left to it is, as a slave of phenomena, to imitate the formal character thereof, and to excite an external pleasure in the play of lines and proportions. on close observation, this fatal influence of the opera on music is seen to coincide absolutely with the universal development of modern music; the optimism lurking in the genesis of the opera and in the essence of culture represented thereby, has, with alarming rapidity, succeeded in divesting music of its dionyso-cosmic mission and in impressing on it a playfully formal and pleasurable character: a change with which perhaps only the metamorphosis of the ?schylean man into the cheerful alexandrine man could be compared.

if, however, in the exemplification herewith indicated we have rightly associated the evanescence of the dionysian spirit with a most striking, but hitherto unexplained transformation and degeneration of the hellene—what hopes must revive in us when the most trustworthy auspices guarantee the reverse process, the gradual awakening of the dionysian spirit in our modern world! it is impossible for the divine strength of herakles to languish for ever in voluptuous bondage to omphale. out of the dionysian root of the german spirit a power has arisen which has nothing in common with the primitive conditions of socratic culture, and can neither be explained nor excused thereby, but is rather regarded by this culture as something terribly inexplicable and overwhelmingly hostile,mdash;namely, german music as we have to understand[pg 151] it, especially in its vast solar orbit from bach to beethoven, from beethoven to wagner. what even under the most favourable circumstances can the knowledge-craving socratism of our days do with this demon rising from unfathomable depths? neither by means of the zig-zag and arabesque work of operatic melody, nor with the aid of the arithmetical counting board of fugue and contrapuntal dialectics is the formula to be found, in the trebly powerful light[23] of which one could subdue this demon and compel it to speak. what a spectacle, when our ?sthetes, with a net of "beauty" peculiar to themselves, now pursue and clutch at the genius of music romping about before them with incomprehensible life, and in so doing display activities which are not to be judged by the standard of eternal beauty any more than by the standard of the sublime. let us but observe these patrons of music as they are, at close range, when they call out so indefatigably "beauty! beauty!" to discover whether they have the marks of nature's darling children who are fostered and fondled in the lap of the beautiful, or whether they do not rather seek a disguise for their own rudeness, an ?sthetical pretext for their own unemotional insipidity: i am thinking here, for instance, of otto jahn. but let the liar and the hypocrite beware of our german music: for in the midst of all our culture it is really the only genuine, pure and purifying fire-spirit from which and towards which, as in the teaching of the great[pg 152] heraclitus of ephesus, all things move in a double orbit-all that we now call culture, education, civilisation, must appear some day before the unerring judge, dionysus.

let us recollect furthermore how kant and schopenhauer made it possible for the spirit of german philosophy streaming from the same sources to annihilate the satisfied delight in existence of scientific socratism by the delimitation of the boundaries thereof; how through this delimitation an infinitely profounder and more serious view of ethical problems and of art was inaugurated, which we may unhesitatingly designate as dionysian wisdom comprised in concepts. to what then does the mystery of this oneness of german music and philosophy point, if not to a new form of existence, concerning the substance of which we can only inform ourselves presentiently from hellenic analogies? for to us who stand on the boundary line between two different forms of existence, the hellenic prototype retains the immeasurable value, that therein all these transitions and struggles are imprinted in a classically instructive form: except that we, as it were, experience analogically in reverse order the chief epochs of the hellenic genius, and seem now, for instance, to pass backwards from the alexandrine age to the period of tragedy. at the same time we have the feeling that the birth of a tragic age betokens only a return to itself of the german spirit, a blessed self-rediscovering after excessive and urgent external influences have for a long time compelled it, living as it did in[pg 153] helpless barbaric formlessness, to servitude under their form. it may at last, after returning to the primitive source of its being, venture to stalk along boldly and freely before all nations without hugging the leading-strings of a romanic civilisation: if only it can learn implicitly of one people—the greeks, of whom to learn at all is itself a high honour and a rare distinction. and when did we require these highest of all teachers more than at present, when we experience a re-birth of tragedy and are in danger alike of not knowing whence it comes, and of being unable to make clear to ourselves whither it tends.