the altar-screens or retablos of the romanesque and gothic periods
the altar-screens, of great size, and known in spain as retablos, which meet us in every church may be considered as the most entirely characteristic expression of the country’s art. nowhere has the development of the altar-screen assumed such importance. the huge retablos of spain stand alone both in their dimensions and in their magnificence. in these works were joined the common efforts of the architect, the sculptor, and the painter. of a size and with a wealth of decoration so great that often an examination of their detail is fatiguing, they represent the most exhaustive examples of the creative thought and power of representation of the native artists.
their evolution is interesting and curious. at first we find them as screens of pagan and roman origin, and dating back to the middle of the twelfth century. but the pagan screens were adapted by{51} christians, who gave to them the name diptycha of the apostles, of the martyrs, and of the saints, and used them as portable altars, and also largely as votive gifts, their richness being in proportion to the wealth of the giver and the importance of the subject depicted. we have several examples in the camara santa of oviedo cathedral and in the camarin of santa teresa, escorial (plate 55). the tablas alfonsinas in the sacristia mayor of the cathedral of seville is another and more important example. this treasure is specially interesting, as it shows the actual use made of these folding tablets. it was the altar of alfonso the learned, and was presented by him to the cathedral in 1274 after he had used it in battle; for in spain these altar-screens were carried by christian generals travelling in the campaigns against the moors. as the reconquest progressed their importance increased, and we have triptycha and pentaptycha as well as diptycha; their number multiplied as they became richer and grander in ornament. they were connected with the deepest religious feelings of christian spain, being used by the paladins to pray to before plunging into battle. later, from portable altars they became fixed altars in churches. from this time their size and magnificence increased, the religious sentiment{52} associated with them explaining, as we believe, both their frequency and their importance in the art of the period.
a selection of the most admirable altar-screens alone would make a long list. almost every church and all the great cathedrals furnish examples; they are especially numerous in the churches of catalonia and navarre.
the altar-screen in the romanesque church of san feliú, though less known than those of zaragoza, barcelona, tarragona, pampeluna, and burgos, is important as a very beautiful and early example of these retablos. it is in two distinct sections, which stand upon a widely spreading base. the first or central part is in three storeys, which are supported by gothic pillars, and in the nine niches stand statues of the saints. these, as well as the bas-reliefs and carvings on the pillars, are of great vigour, and the effect is strengthened by the admirable painting and gilding. the second part of the screen is composed of two wings, on which are carved the figures of the prophets, surrounded by rich foliage. these too are painted and gilded.
the creative power displayed in these retablos is often surprising. but it must be admitted that their general effect is less satisfactory than an{53} examination of the parts in detail would lead us to expect. the artists would often seem to have been hampered by the huge size they had to ornament. continuing the accustomed forms, evolved for use in screens of more modest dimensions, they have gained the desired amplitude of ornament by a multiplication of the same forms that is often wearying. but granting this, it is among these works that many important and beautiful statues will be found. for this reason they cannot be overlooked by the student of spanish polychromes.
no altar-screen in spain is more beautiful or more worthy of study than the one in the capilla mayor of tarragona cathedral. it illustrates the life of st. tecla, the disciple of st. paul, and the tutelary saint of tarragona, who was martyred, according to legend, on this spot. we read the story in the delightful légende dorée of jaques de voragine:—
“st. paul was seized and conveyed to prison, whither his disciple tecla followed him. the apostle and the maiden were judged together, and together condemned: he to be beaten with rods and driven from the city, she to be burned alive. she threw herself joyously on to the pyre, but immediately a heavy shower of rain fell from the sky and extinguished the flames; also a great{54} earthquake occurred, in which perished a great number of pagans. by this means tecla was enabled to escape. she took refuge in the house where st. paul was living, and was overjoyed to meet the inspirer of her conversion. she wished to cut her hair and travel with him, disguised as a man. but this the apostle would not permit, for she had great beauty.”
in the tarragona screen charming pinnacles crown a bas-relief representing the virgin and her child, to the right and left of which stand st. paul and st. tecla, figures of heroic size, who regard the group with pious emotion. beside them are bas-reliefs, most minutely executed, representing scenes in the saint’s life. in one we see her as described by voragine, with serene face, her body nude, and praying in the midst of the flames which envelop without burning her. angels encourage and sustain her, while below are seen the grinning heads of the damned. in another scene the saint is surrounded by reptiles and wild beasts in the cave into which she was thrown; and in yet another she stands beside a bull, destined to drag and crush her body among the stones of the road. between the bas-reliefs are statues of prophets, apostles, and saints; and on brackets, in the midst of foliage, repose female saints with{55} smiling faces. all the figures are carved with great skill, and besides there is a wealth of detail—flowers, foliage, animals, and insects—all of which are treated with surprising ability.
the colourisation of the screen, like most marble and alabaster monuments, has suffered from repeated and careless washings. but the carvings preserve everywhere vestiges of paint and gilt, so that it is possible to reconstruct the scheme of colour. this is curious—generally blue and gold, with only a few touches of red and brown, which m. marcel dieulafoy suggests may be due to the artist’s desire to surround st. tecla by the virginal and holy atmosphere which would be suggested by this manifold and unusual use of blue tones. this realisation of the spiritual expression of a legend is very characteristic of spain, whose artists possessed as their greatest gift the power of rendering a story just as they felt it had happened.
we owe the tarragona altar-screen to a native catalan artist. it was begun in 1426 by pedro juan de vallfongona, who executed the bas-reliefs and statues of the first two stages, while at the same time the artist guillermo de la monta worked on the architecture and ornaments. but in 1436 pedro juan, gaining favour from the beauty of his{56} work, was called to execute an altar for zaragoza cathedral, after which he only retained a sort of inspectorship over the work at tarragona, which was finished by guillermo de la monta.
pedro juan worked on the zaragoza altar-screen until his death in 1447, aided by pedro garces, guillermo monta, and pedro navarro. for some reason the work was suspended for twenty-six years, when, on account of the great age of the original collaborators, it was entrusted to gil morlau, with gabriel gombao to aid him in the inferior parts. finally the screen was completed and gilded and painted in 1480.
the altar-screen of zaragoza has some fine bas-reliefs; the most important is that of the centre, which shows the adoration of the magi. the virgin, seated, presents her babe to the kings, figures of vigorous life and great dignity, who bend in worship as they offer their gifts; behind, a group of figures represent a crowd of onlookers. on either side of this central composition are bas-reliefs representing scenes in the transfiguration, lives of the virgin, and ascension of christ: these are the work of pedro juan.
another important retablo, which follows in date the work of pedro juan, is that in the{57} capilla de santiago (plate 56) in the cathedral of toledo. it is made of larch wood, and carved, gilded, and painted in the richest gothic style. the bas-reliefs represent scenes in the new testament; all the figures are life size. we owe this work to the artists sancho de zamora, juan de segovia, and pedro gumiel, and it was begun at the end of the fifteenth century. in the same chapel at toledo are the six magnificent gothic tombs of don álvaro de luna, the work of pablo ortiz, one of the most famous carvers in the fifteenth century (plate 58). another interesting altar-screen is that in the capilla de la trinidad (plate 59).
in the carvings of these later altar-screens and tombs a new influence will be traced; for, in the last third of the fifteenth century, what may truly be termed a revolution in style took place in spanish sculpture. a stronger realistic tendency, with a more marked individuality in the portraits, will be seen. the characteristic features are more emphasised, the gestures more free and more individual. waved lines give place to broken ones, rounded surfaces to sharp-edged ones. this heightened vitality was due not only to a greater mastery of the technical part of sculpture by the native artists, but to a newly imported art inspiration, which now began to mingle with,{58} and even to replace, the influences of france and burgundy.
up till about 1400 spain was loyal to france, and kept her artists as her teachers and advisers. afterwards burgundy displaced france, and we have the far-reaching influence of the great ecclesiastical orders. now followed the rule of the netherlands and of germany. in the fifteenth century spain was brought into close connection with the low countries. the intermarrying of the royal houses of burgundy and hapsburg united the northern countries first with portugal, and afterwards with spain. the result of this union was a great advancement in spain’s art. the first of the northerners to come to spain were painters, and we have the visit of jan van eyck, in 1428, with its far-reaching consequences to spanish painting; then followed architects and sculptors. a flemish painter was adopted by the count of aragon about 1440; and the cartuja of miraflores has a small altar-screen of which the wings were painted by him. the archives of toledo mention a great number of flemish artists of renown, who settled and worked in the city, among whom were juan and bernardino of brussels, whose names are often mentioned by cean bermudez, and the four brothers egas from eycken, one of whom,{59} anequin, was appointed architect of the cathedral by the chapter, and directed the work of the sculptures of the gate of the lions, being assisted by fernandez de liena and juan givas, also an architect of the cathedral. then we know that at burgos worked the colonia family, juan, simeon, and francisco, who carved the woodwork of the cathedral and that of the cartuja of miraflores. there were also northern artists in seville. mateo and nicolas were skilful goldsmiths, and cristobal—all of whom probably came from germany—was a painter on glass. juan aleman, in 1512, finished the choir-stalls of the cathedral, george fernandez aleman carved the retablo, while another artist of the same name, rodrigo aleman, sculptured the wainscoting of palencia cathedral, whose invention and humour, professor carl justi says, recall the south german masters.
these northern artists, widely distributed over spain, brought about the transformation of art of which we have spoken. the native artists readily absorbed their influence. we now meet a marked change in the direction of realism. the christs are long, lean, and emaciated, the virgins are older; we have sharply defined outlines, and the religious scenes and legends are depicted with a stronger and more passionate understanding.{60}
the altar-screens were still the most important works that were executed. an interesting example, which shows very clearly this new expression of realism, is an altar-screen in the museum of valladolid, which came from the convent of san francisco (plates 60 and 61). it is carved in walnut wood, and there are traces of painting. the figure of christ is strangely emaciated, the virgin is older, while all the figures are strongly characterised; there is a very considerable amount of creative thought and power in the presentment of the scene. the author of the work is unknown.
among many other important examples of this over-accentuated realistic type may be mentioned an anonymous pietà from salamanca, in which we see the new tendencies expressed at their strongest point of accentuation. an altar-screen in one of the chapels of palencia cathedral, the bas-reliefs which ornament the spandril of the puerta de la piedad, the south entrance of barcelona cathedral, and also the figures which crown the door of the hospice of huesca, are further, though less striking, examples. the altar of santa ana in burgos cathedral belongs to the same period; but in this very charming example we have a work of a different character. the figures, carved in wood and coloured, especially{61} the youthful and beautiful virgin, have a grace and freedom of movement absent from the more realistic works which were the outcome of the northern influences.
the greatest artist of this period was gil de siloe, whose works rank among the most important sculptures in spain. he was a native of burgos, and was born at the end of the fifteenth century. his masterpiece is the monument of don juan ii. and do?a isabel, known as the sepulcros de los reyes, in the cartuja of miraflores, burgos (plate 64). it was erected by isabella the catholic, daughter of juan ii., and was begun in the year 1489, when gil de siloe received 1340 maravedis for the design. it was finished four years later, and a further sum of 442,667 maravedis for the sculpture and 158,252 for the alabaster were paid. it is perhaps the finest monument of its kind in spain, perfect both in design and execution.
the monument, which stands in the centre of the church, is of a curious shape, being octagonal, or rather sixteen-sided, a form very uncommon, and oriental in its origin. the recumbent figures of the king and queen lie side by side on a sumptuous bed, and between them is a low marble railing. the king has a ring on the right hand{62} and holds a sceptre, in the queen’s hand is a prayer-book and rosary. the sides are ornamented with statues, placed under delicate canopies, of which some represent the cardinal virtues, and each is a masterpiece of carving. there are besides sixteen lions bearing escutcheons, and bas-reliefs of scenes from the new testament. then around the top is a double cornice of foliage—branches of vines and laurels—with birds and animals splendidly carved (plates 65 and 66).
above the tomb, inlaid upon the wall, is the monument of their son, alfonso (plate 67), whose death in 1470, at the age of sixteen, brought isabella the catholic to the throne. this work is elaborately adorned with carvings. placed in a small elliptic arch, the prince kneels before a prie-dieu. he wears a mantle similar to the king. above him are the virgin and the angel gabriel, bearing a vase in which blooms a lily as the emblem of purity, while st. michael with the dragon, the emblem of victory, is placed on the spandril between the flying-arch and the accolade. below on the sub-basement a charming group of angels hold the battle-shield of the young prince.
the tomb, now in the museum of burgos, of juan de padella (plate 68) is so similar to the monument of prince alfonso, not only in the{63} general design and style, but in the actual carrying out of the details, that it seems right to attribute it to gil de siloe. juan de padella was a royal page, killed in the siege of granada; he is known to have been a great favourite of queen isabella, who called him mi loco (my fool), and it is therefore quite probable that de siloe, the royal artist, would be employed to design and execute his tomb.
the retablo of the high altar at miraflores (plates 69-71) is also by gil de siloe, but in this work he was aided by diego de la cruz. it was begun in the year 1490; the date at which it was completed is not known. it has numerous statues. in the centre is a crucifixion, with a realistic christ. the virgin and st. john, figures of great merit, wait beside the cross, and a band of angels press forward to receive the drops of the divine blood. above flies the symbolical pelican, feeding its young with its own blood; below are the kneeling figures of juan ii. and isabella his wife, he being guarded by santiago, spain’s patron hero, while she is protected by a saint. at either side of this central composition are bas-reliefs representing scenes from the life of christ, and figures of the apostles and evangelists. perhaps the best of the carvings is the one of{64} a female saint with a figure asleep at her feet. the saint’s figure is exquisitely coloured—a perfect example of polychrome. there are also interesting carvings in the choir-stalls (plate 72). with the miraflores altar-screen we may compare the retablo of the church of santa gadea del cid, also at burgos (plate 73). the author of this important carving is unknown.
among numerous works which deserve to take rank with the polychromes of gil de siloe a few must be mentioned. one of the best is the funeral monument of do?a beatrice de pacheco, comtesse of medellin, in the monastery church of the hyeronymites del parral, near segovia, which m. marcel dieulafoy suggests is the work of juan eqas or his brother. unfortunately the barbarous treatment this monument has suffered prevents its enjoying the reputation it deserves. then there are the bas-reliefs of christ entering jerusalem and christ in hades on the door which leads from the nave to the cloisters of burgos cathedral, fine specimens of gothic carving; and other examples may be seen in the cathedrals of vittoria, pampeluna, avila, valencia, leon, and toledo.
we have now examined the most important polychromes that were executed up to the close of the fifteenth century. they present us with works{65} of great vigour, especially those later pieces, which show the influences from the north. they were wrought at a time when the vitality of spain was at its highest and its growth in the art of carving was in full development.
it may be well at this point, and before turning to new influences which were again to alter the tendencies of the native work, to consider briefly the technique of polychrome statuary.
the altar-screens, as we have seen, were the special activity of the period. m. marcel dieulafoy gives an excellent and concise account of the manner in which these important works were carried out by different sets of workmen, for it was rarely that all the processes necessary to the completion of a polychrome were undertaken by one artist. first and most important there was the tracer, afterwards called the assembler, the chief artist, who furnished the design both for the whole work and its ornaments of statuary and bas-reliefs, and also superintended its execution. to him the sculptors, ornamenters, master-masons, and master-carpenters were subordinate, but the painters, damaskers, and gilders were free from his control. thus writes m. marcel dieulafoy: “the intervention of four successive brotherhoods of artists was required—1. tracers, who later became known as{66} architectural assemblers; 2. imagers, who were the sculptors and carvers; 3. the eucaruadores, the body-painters who coloured the flesh of the figures; 4. the estofadores and doradores, who were respectively the stuff-painters and the gilders.” just as the tracer had ascendency over and directed the work of the imagers—the sculptors and carvers—so the eucaruadore, or flesh-artist, was the head of the polychrome workers, and directed the colourers of the stuff-painters and the gilders. his position was one of supreme importance, which is proved by the fact that it was not unusual for him to receive for his work as much as half of the entire sum paid. this is an interesting proof of the high esteem in which the art of polychrome was held. the estofadores had not the same importance; their work was to paint the stuffs of the garments, generally on a background of gold, and also foliage and arabesques. the doradores or gilders were their collaborators, and their special work, besides the gilding of the background, was to paint in “full-gilt” armour, &c., and to enrich with jewels; to their share also fell the art of damasking.
almost all the great painters of spain were polychromists, and we find them collaborating with the sculptors. this custom continued far beyond{67} the period we have been considering. zurbaran, murillo, valdés leal, and pacheco coloured the statues of gaspar delgado and monta?és. pacheco, the great historian, who was also a painter, especially extols the art of polychrome in several illuminating passages in his arte de la pintura. in one place he writes:—
“may it please god in his mercy to exile from the world the vulgar enamellers, and in the supreme cause of truth, harmony, and enlightenment to establish for flesh-painting the use of the ‘mat’ colouring” (this ‘mat’ or dull colouring superseded the burnished or polished colouring), “which approaches nearer to nature, lends itself to numerous retouches, and so permits the production of that delicacy which to-day we so much admire. it is true that the moderns—by whom i mean those between the ancient painters and ourselves—began to employ this style, as we may gather from their treatises on sculpture and from what we see on the old altar-screens, but the merit of having revived the art in spain, and of giving, thanks to it, a better light and more of life to good sculpture, i dare to say belongs in truth to me. at the least i am the only one in seville who since the year 1600 preached and practised it. it is well to know that on the 17th of january in that year i painted in ‘mat’ the christ, executed by the goldsmith juan bautista franconio, after the model of the ‘four nails’ crucifixion of michael angelo, which he brought from rome. since then all artists have imitated me. it would take too long to enumerate the{68} remarkable works of gaspar nu?ez delgado and martinez monta?és which this city possesses, and in which i have collaborated; but it would be unpardonable if i did not specify some of them, as they are among the best of the number which have proved the superiority of this invention.”
he then gives a list of polychromes which he has coloured, works which we shall notice in a later chapter. afterwards he continues:—
“whence have they acquired the audacity, those who claim that painting on flat surfaces dominates the arts, and that if they had to paint the flesh of a statue they could do it better with their feet than the specialists with their hands? they are very much mistaken in that, for if they tried they would bring no grace, nor lightness, nor freshness to the work. in the same way that when one imitates nature in a well-designed head, one renders the colour, the delicacy of the eyes, of the mouth, the brilliancy and effect of the hair, so even on good sculpture can admiration be exacted, as has been proved by the enthusiasm of those who have seen the works which i have painted in ‘mat.’ the fact is so public that i need not insist on it.”
pacheco, in another passage of equal illumination, also speaks of the beauty of the art of damasking, giving a careful and full account of the process:—
“marvellous was the invention made by the old painters for the ornamentation of figures in relief and{69} the architecture of altar-screens by gilding in burnished gold and damasking them. the colours must be the same, and chosen with the same care as those designed for illumination. they must be ground and prepared in water with the same limpidity, but in lieu of gum paste one should use the yolks of fresh eggs diluted in equal volume of water, fresh and clear, beaten to a froth. this paste must be mixed with the colours for damasking the burnished gold, taking care to size with white lead all the parts to be painted, be it either of grotesque figures or of vestments, of which the gold should serve as a background for divers colours. it is always well to know that blue does not require so strong a paste as carmine, vermilion, ochre, and other colours of little body, and that if the paste be more than a day old it is necessary to add with the egg a few drops of vinegar to prevent spoiling.”
these significant passages may well end this chapter. it must be accepted that polychrome was an art highly esteemed, that colouring of statuary, and especially of the great altar-screens, was carried out with extreme care, and was regarded as work not beneath the dignity of the greatest artists. in spain the sculptor and the painter were as one.
