in september, 1854, he was made professor and dean of the new faculté des sciences at lille. “i need not, sir,” wrote the minister of public instruction, m. fortoul, in a letter where private feelings were mixed with official solemnity, “recall to your mind the importance which is attached to the success of this new faculty of science, situated in a town which is the richest centre of industrial activity in the north of france. by giving you the direction of it, i show the entire confidence which i have placed in you. i am convinced that you will fulfil the hopes which i have founded upon your zeal.”
built at the expense of the town, the faculté was situated in the rue des fleurs. in the opening speech which he pronounced on december 7, 1854, the young dean expressed his enthusiasm for the imperial decree of august 22, which brought two happy innovations into the faculties of science: (1) the pupils might, for a small annual sum, enter the laboratory and practise the principal experiments carried out before them at the classes; and (2) a new diploma was created. after two years of practical and theoretical study the young men who wished to enter an industrial career could obtain this special diploma and be chosen as foremen or overseers. pasteur was overjoyed at being able to do useful work in that country of distilleries, and to attract large audiences to the new faculty. “where in your families will you find,” he said, to excite indolent minds—“where will you find a young man whose curiosity and interest will not immediately be awakened when you put into his hands a potato, when with that potato he may produce sugar, with that sugar alcohol, with that alcohol ?ther and vinegar? where is he that will not be happy to tell his family in the evening that he has just been working out an electric telegraph? and, gentlemen, be convinced of this, such studies are seldom if ever forgotten. it is somewhat as if geography were to be taught{76} by travelling; such geography is remembered because one has seen the places. in the same way your sons will not forget what the air we breathe contains when they have once analysed it, when in their hands and under their eyes the admirable properties of its elements have been resolved.”
after stating his wish to be directly useful to these sons of manufacturers and to put his laboratory at their disposal, he eloquently upheld the rights of theory in teaching—
“without theory, practice is but routine born of habit. theory alone can bring forth and develop the spirit of invention. it is to you specially that it will belong not to share the opinion of those narrow minds who disdain everything in science which has not an immediate application. you know franklin’s charming saying? he was witnessing the first demonstration of a purely scientific discovery, and people round him said: ‘but what is the use of it?’ franklin answered them: ‘what is the use of a new-born child?’ yes, gentlemen, what is the use of a new-born child? and yet, perhaps, at that tender age, germs already existed in you of the talents which distinguish you! in your baby boys, fragile beings as they are, there are incipient magistrates, scientists, heroes as valiant as those who are now covering themselves with glory under the walls of sebastopol. and thus, gentlemen, a theoretical discovery has but the merit of its existence: it awakens hope, and that is all. but let it be cultivated, let it grow, and you will see what it will become.
“do you know when it first saw the light, this electric telegraph, one of the most marvellous applications of modern science? it was in that memorable year, 1822: oersted, a danish physicist, held in his hands a piece of copper wire, joined by its extremities to the two poles of a volta pile. on his table was a magnetized needle on its pivot, and he suddenly saw (by chance you will say, but chance only favours the mind which is prepared) the needle move and take up a position quite different from the one assigned to it by terrestrial magnetism. a wire carrying an electric current deviates a magnetized needle from its position. that, gentlemen, was the birth of the modern telegraph. franklin’s interlocutor might well have said when the needle moved: ‘but what is the use of that?’ and yet that discovery was barely twenty years old when it produced by its application the almost supernatural effects of the electric telegraph!{77}”
the small theatre where pasteur gave his chemistry lessons soon became celebrated in the students’ world.
the faults had disappeared with which pasteur used to reproach himself when he first taught at dijon and later at strasburg. he was sure of himself, he was clear in his explanations; the chain of thought, the fitness of words, all was perfect. he made few experiments, but those were decisive. he endeavoured to bring out every observation or comparison they might suggest. the pupil who went away delighted from the class did not suspect the care each of those apparently easy lessons had cost. when pasteur had carefully prepared all his notes, he used to make a summary of them; he had these summaries bound together afterwards. we may thus sketch the outline of his work; but who will paint the gesture of demonstration, the movement, the grave penetrating voice, the life in short?
after a few months the minister wrote to m. guillemin, the rector, that he was much pleased with the success of this faculty of sciences at lille, “which already owes it to the merit of the teaching—solid and brilliant at the same time—of that clever professor, that it is able to rival the most flourishing faculties.” the minister felt he must add some official advice: “but m. pasteur must guard against being carried away by his love for science, and he must not forget that the teaching of the faculties, whilst keeping up with scientific theory, should, in order to produce useful and far-reaching results, appropriate to itself the special applications suitable to the real wants of the surrounding country.”
a year after the inauguration of the new faculty, pasteur wrote to chappuis: “our classes are very well attended; i have 250 to 300 people at my most popular lectures, and we have twenty-one pupils entered for laboratory experiments. i believe that this year, like last year, lille holds the first rank for that innovation, for i am told that at lyons there were but eight entries.” it was indeed a success to distance lyons. “the zeal of all is a pleasure to watch (january, 1856). it reaches that point that four of the professors take the trouble to have their manuscript lessons printed; there are already 120 subscribers for the course of applied mechanics.
“our building is fortunately completed; it is large and handsome, but will soon become insufficient owing to the progress of practical teaching.{78}
“we are very comfortably settled on the first floor, and i have (on the ground floor immediately below) what i have always wished for, a laboratory where i can go at any time. this week, for instance, the gas remains on, and operations follow their course whilst i am in bed. in this way i try to make up a little of the time which i have to give to the direction of all the rather numerous departments in our faculties. add to this that i am a member of two very active societies, and that i have been entrusted, at the suggestion of the conseil-général,[24] with the testing of manures for the département of the nord, a considerable work in this rich agricultural land, but one which i have accepted eagerly, so as to popularize and enlarge the influence of our young faculty.
“do not fear lest all this should keep me from the studies i love. i shall not give them up, and i trust that what is already accomplished will grow without my help, with the growth that time gives to everything that has within it the germ of life. let us all work; that only is enjoyable. i am quoting m. biot, who certainly is an authority on that subject. you saw the share he took the other day in a great discussion at the académie des sciences; his presence of mind, high reasoning powers, and youthfulness were magnificent, and he is eighty-four!”
in a mere study on pasteur as a scientific man, the way in which he understood his duties as dean would only be a secondary detail. it is not so here, the very object of this book being to paint what he was in all the circumstances, all the trials of life. besides his professional obligations, his kindness in leaving his laboratory, however hard the sacrifice, bears witness to an ever present devotion. for instance, he took his pupils round factories and foundries at aniche, denain, valenciennes, st. omer. in july, 1856, he organized for the same pupils a tour in belgium. he took them to visit factories, iron foundries, steel and metal works, questioning the foremen with his insatiable curiosity, pleased to induce in his tall students a desire to learn. all returned from these trips with more pleasure in their work; some with the fiery enthusiasm that pasteur wished to see.{79}
the sentence in his lille speech, “in the fields of observation, chance only favours the mind which is prepared,” was particularly applicable to him. in the summer of 1856 a lille manufacturer, m. bigo, had, like many others that same year, met with great disappointments in the manufacture of beetroot alcohol. he came to the young dean for advice. the prospect of doing a kindness, of communicating the results of his observations to the numerous hearers who crowded the small theatre of the faculty, and of closely studying the phenomena of fermentation which preoccupied him to such a degree, caused pasteur to consent to make some experiments. he spent some time almost daily at the factory. on his return to his laboratory—where he only had a student’s microscope and a most primitive coke-fed stove—he examined the globules in the fermentation juice, he compared filtered with non-filtered beetroot juice, and conceived stimulating hypotheses often to be abandoned in face of a fact in contradiction with them. above some note made a few days previously, where a suggested hypothesis had not been verified by fact, he would write: “error,” “erroneous,” for he was implacable in his criticism of himself.
m. bigo’s son, who studied in pasteur’s laboratory, has summed up in a letter how these accidents of manufacture became a starting point to pasteur’s investigations on fermentation, particularly alcoholic fermentation. “pasteur had noticed through the microscope that the globules were round when fermentation was healthy, that they lengthened when alteration began, and were quite long when fermentation became lactic. this very simple method allowed us to watch the process and to avoid the failures in fermentation which we used so often to meet with.... i had the good fortune to be many times the confidant of the enthusiasms and disappointments of a great man of science.” young bigo indeed remembered the series of experiments, the numerous observations noted, and how pasteur, whilst studying the causes of those failures in the distillery, had wondered whether he was not confronted with a general fact, common to all fermentations. pasteur was on the road to a discovery the consequences of which were to revolutionize chemistry. during months and months he worked to assure himself that he was not a prey to error.
in order to appreciate the importance of the ideas which{80} from that small laboratory were about to inundate the world, and in order to take account of the effort necessitated to obtain the triumph of a theory which was to become a doctrine, it is necessary to go back to the teachings of that time upon the subject of fermentations. all was darkness, pierced in 1836 by a momentary ray of light. the physicist cagniard-latour, studying the ferment of beer called yeast, had observed that that ferment was composed of cells “susceptible of reproduction by a sort of budding, and probably acting on sugar through some effect of their vegetation.” almost at the same time the german doctor schwann was making analogous observations. however, as the fact seemed isolated, nothing similar being met with elsewhere, cagniard-latour’s remark was but a curious parenthesis in the history of fermentations.
when such men as j. b. dumas said that perhaps there might be a sequel to cagniard-latour’s statement, they emitted the idea so timidly that, in a book on contagion published at montpellier in 1853, anglada, the well known author, expressed himself thus—
“m. dumas, who is an authority, looks upon the act of fermentation as strange and obscure; he declares that it gives rise to phenomena the knowledge of which is only tentative at present. such a competent affirmation is of a nature to discourage those who claim to unravel the mysteries of contagion by the comparative study of fermentation. what is the advantage of explaining one through the other since both are equally mysterious!” this word, obscure, was to be found everywhere. claude bernard used the same epithet at the collège de france in march, 1850, to qualify those phenomena.
four months before the request of the lille manufacturer, pasteur himself, preparing on a loose sheet of paper a lesson on fermentation, had written these words: “what does fermentation consist of?—mysterious character of the phenomenon.—a word on lactic acid.” did he speak in that lesson of his ideas of future experiments? did he insist upon the mystery he intended to unveil? with his powers of concentration it is probable that he restrained himself and decided to wait another year.
the theories of berzelius and of liebig then reigned supreme. to the mind of berzelius, the swedish chemist, fermentation was due to contact. it was said that there was a catalytic force. in his opinion, what cagniard-latour{81} believed he had seen, was but “an immediate vegetable principle, which became precipitated during the fermentation of beer, and which, in precipitating, presented forms analogous to the simpler forms of vegetable life, but formation does not constitute life.”
in the view of the german chemist liebig, chemical decomposition was produced by influence: the ferment was an extremely alterable organic substance which decomposed, and in decomposing set in motion, by the rupture of its own elements, the molecules of the fermentative matter; it was the dead portion of the yeast, that which had lived and was being altered, which acted upon the sugar. these theories were adopted, taught, and to be found in all treatises on chemistry.
a vacancy at the académie des sciences took pasteur away from his students for a time and obliged him to go to paris. biot, dumas, balard and senarmont had insisted upon his presenting himself in the section of mineralogy. he felt himself unfit for the candidature. he was as incapable of election man?uvres as he was full of his subject when he had to convince an interlocutor or to interest an audience in his works on crystallography. (these works had just procured the bestowal on him of the great rumford medal, conferred by the london royal society.) during this detested canvassing campaign he had one happy day: he was present on february 5, 1857, at the reception of biot by the académie fran?aise.
biot, who had entered the académie des sciences fifty-four years earlier, and was now the oldest member of the institute, took advantage of his great age to distribute, in the course of his speech, a good deal of wise counsel, much applauded by pasteur from the ranks of the audience. biot, with his calm irony, aimed this epigram at men of science who disdained letters: “their science was not the more apparent through their want of literary culture.” he ended by remarks which formed a continuation of his last letter to pasteur’s father. making an appeal to those whose high ambition is to consecrate themselves to pure science, he proudly said: “perhaps your name, your existence will be unknown to the crowd. but you will be known, esteemed, sought after by a small number of eminent men scattered over the face of the earth, your rivals, your peers in the intellectual senate of minds; they alone have the right to appreciate you and to assign to you your rank,{82} a well-merited rank, which no princely will, no popular caprice can give or take away, and which will remain yours as long as you remain faithful to science, which bestows it upon you.”
guizot, to whom it fell to welcome biot to the académie, rendered homage to his independence, to his worship of disinterested research, to his ready counsels. “the events which have overturned everything around you,” he said, “have never turned the course of your free and firm judgment, or of your peaceful labours.” on that occasion the decline of biot’s life seemed like a beautiful summer evening in the north, before nightfall, when a soft light still envelops all things. no disciple ever felt more emotion than pasteur when participating in that last joy of his aged master. in regnault’s laboratory, a photograph had been taken of biot seated with bent head and a weary attitude, but with the old sparkle in his eyes. biot offered it to pasteur, saying: “if you place this proof near a portrait of your father, you will unite the pictures of two men who have loved you very much in the same way.”
pasteur, between two canvassing visits, gave himself the pleasure of going to hear a young professor that every one was then speaking of. “i have just been to a lecture by rigault, at the collège de france,” he wrote on march 6, 1857. “the room is too small, it is a struggle to get in. i have come away delighted; it is a splendid success for the université, there is nothing to add, nothing to retrench. fancy a professor in one of the paris lycées making such a début at the collège de france!”
pasteur preferred rigault to st. marc girardin. “and rigault is only beginning!” but, under rigault’s elegance and apparent ease, lurked perpetual constraint. one day that st. marc girardin was congratulating him, “ah,” said rigault, “you do not see the steel corsets that i wear when i am speaking!” that comparison suited his delicate, ingenious, slightly artificial mind, never unrestrained even in simple conversation, at the same time conscientious and self-conscious. he who had once written that “life is a work of art to be fashioned by a skilful hand if the faculties of the mind are to be fully enjoyed,” made the mistake of forcing his nature. he died a few months after that lecture.
pasteur’s enthusiastic lines about rigault show the joy he felt at the success of others. he did not understand envy, ill-will, or jealousy, and was more than astonished, indeed amazed,{83} when he came across such feelings. one day that he had read an important paper at the académie des sciences, “would you believe it,” he wrote to his father, “i met a paris professor of chemistry the very next day, whom i know to have been present, who had indeed come purposely to hear my reading, and he never said a word! i then remembered a saying of m. biot’s: ‘when a colleague reads a paper and no one speaks to him about it afterwards, it is because it has been thought well of....’”
the election was at hand. pasteur wrote (march 11): “my dear father, i am certain to fail.” he thought he might count upon twenty votes; thirty were necessary. he resigned himself philosophically. his candidature would at any rate bring his works into greater prominence. in spite of a splendid report by senarmont, enumerating the successive steps by which pasteur had risen since his first discoveries concerning the connection between internal structure and external crystalline forms, pasteur only obtained sixteen votes.
on his return to lille he set to work with renewed energy; he took up again his study of fermentations, and in particular that of sour milk, called lactic fermentation; he made notes of his experiments day by day; he drew in a notebook the little globules, the tiny bodies that he found in a grey substance sometimes arranged in a zone. those globules, much smaller than those of yeast, had escaped the observation of chemists and naturalists because it was easy to confound them with other products of lactic fermentation. after isolating and then scattering in a liquid a trace of that grey substance, pasteur saw some well-characterized lactic fermentation appear. that matter, that grey substance was indeed the ferment.
whilst all the writings of the chemists who followed in the train of liebig and berzelius united in rejecting the idea of an influence of life in the cause of fermentations, pasteur recognized therein a phenomenon correlative to life. that special lactic yeast, pasteur could see budding, multiplying, and offering the same phenomena of reproduction as beer yeast.
it was not to the académie des sciences, as is generally believed, that pasteur sent the paper on lactic fermentation, the fifteen pages of which contained such curious and unexpected facts. with much delicacy of feeling, pasteur made to the lille scientific society this communication (august, 1857) which the académie des sciences only saw three months later.{84}
how was it that he desired to leave this faculty at lille to which he had rendered such valuable service? the ecole normale was going through difficult times. “in my opinion,” wrote pasteur with a sadness that betrayed his attachment to the great school, “of all the objects of care to the authorities, the ecole normale should be the first; it is now but the shadow of its former self.” he who so often said, “do not dwell upon things already acquired!” thought that the lille faculty was henceforth sure of its future and needed him no longer. was it not better to come to the assistance of the threatened weak point? at the ministry of public instruction his wish was understood and approved of. nisard had just been made director of the ecole normale with high and supreme powers; his sub-director of literary studies was m. jacquinet. the administration was reserved for pasteur, who was also entrusted with the direction of the scientific studies. to that task were added “the surveillance of the economic and hygienic management, the care of general discipline, intercourse with the families of the pupils and the literary or scientific establishments frequented by them.”
the rector of the lille faculty announced in these terms the departure of the dean: “our faculty loses a professor and a scientist of the very first order. you have yourselves, gentlemen, been able to appreciate more than once all the vigour and clearness of that mind at once so powerful and so capable.”
at the ecole normale, pasteur’s labours were not at first seconded by material convenience. the only laboratory in the rue d’ulm building was occupied by henri sainte claire deville who, in 1851, had taken the place of balard, the latter leaving the ecole normale for the collège de france. dark rooms, a very few instruments, and a credit of 1,800 francs a year, that was all sainte claire deville had been able to obtain. it would have seemed like a dream to pasteur. he had to organize his scientific installation in two attics under the roof of the ecole normale; he had no assistance of any kind, not even that of an ordinary laboratory attendant. but his courage was not of the kind which evaporates at the first obstacle, and no difficulty could have kept him from work: he climbed the stairs leading to his pseudo-laboratory with all the cheerfulness of a soldier’s son. biot—who had been grieved to see the chemist laurent working in a sort of cellar, where that scientist’s health suffered (he died at forty-three)—was angry that pasteur should{85} be relegated to an uninhabitable garret. neither did he understand the “economic and hygienic surveillance” attributed to pasteur. he hoped pasteur would reduce to their just proportions those secondary duties. “they have made him an administrator,” he said with mock pomposity; “let them believe that he will administrate.” biot was mistaken. the de minimis non curat did not exist for pasteur.
on one of his agenda leaves, besides subjects for lectures, we find notes such as these: “catering; ascertain what weight of meat per pupil is given out at the ecole polytechnique. courtyard to be strewn with sand. ventilation of classroom. dining hall door to be repaired.” each detail was of importance in his eyes, when the health of the students was in question.
he inaugurated his garret by some work almost as celebrated as that on lactic fermentation. in december, 1857, he presented to the académie des sciences a paper on alcoholic fermentation. “i have submitted,” he said, “alcoholic fermentation to the method of experimentation indicated in the notes which i recently had the honour of presenting to the académie. the results of those labours should be put on the same lines, for they explain and complete each other.” and in conclusion: “the deduplication of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid is correlative to a phenomenon of life, an organization of globules....”
the reports of the académie des sciences for 1858 show how pasteur recognized complex phenomena in alcoholic fermentation. whilst chemists were content to say: “so much sugar gives so much alcohol and so much carbonic acid,” pasteur went further. he wrote to chappuis in june: “i find that alcoholic fermentation is constantly accompanied by the production of glycerine; it is a very curious fact. for instance, in one litre of wine there are several grammes of that product which had not been suspected.” shortly before that he had also recognized the normal presence in alcoholic fermentation of succinic acid. “i should be pursuing the consequences of these facts,” he added, “if a temperature of 36° c. did not keep me from my laboratory. i regret to see the longest days in the year lost to me. yet i have grown accustomed to my attic, and i should be sorry to leave it. next holidays i hope to enlarge it. you too are struggling against material hindrances in your work; let it stimulate us, my dear fellow, and not discourage us. our discoveries will have the greater merit.{86}”
the year 1859 was given up to examining further facts concerning fermentation. whence came those ferments, those microscopic bodies, those transforming agents, so weak in appearance, so powerful in reality? great problems were working in his mind; but he was careful not to propound them hastily, for he was the most timid, the most hesitating of men until he held proofs in his hands. “in experimental science,” he wrote, “it is always a mistake not to doubt when facts do not compel you to affirm.”
in september he lost his eldest daughter. she died of typhoid fever at arbois, where she was staying with her grandfather. on december 30 pasteur wrote to his father: “i cannot keep my thoughts from my poor little girl, so good, so happy in her little life, whom this fatal year now ending has taken away from us. she was growing to be such a companion to her mother and to me, to us all.... but forgive me, dearest father, for recalling these sad memories. she is happy; let us think of those who remain and try as much as lies in our power to keep from them the bitterness of this life.{87}”
