means of observation—apogeotropism—cytisus—verbena—beta—gradual

conversion of the movement of circumnutation into apogeotropism in rubus,

lilium, phalaris, avena, and brassica—apogeotropism retarded by

heliotropism—effected by the aid of joints or pulvini—movements of

flower-peduncles of oxalis—general remarks on apogeotropism—geotropism—

movements of radicles—burying of seed-capsules—use of process—trifolium

subterraneum—arachis—amphicarpaea—diageotropism—conclusion

our object in the present chapter is to show that geotropism, apogeotropism, and diageotropism are modified forms of circumnutation. extremely fine filaments of glass, bearing two minute triangles of paper, were fixed to the summits of young stems, frequently to the hypocotyls of seedlings, to flower-peduncles, radicles, etc., and the movements of the parts were then traced in the manner already described on vertical and horizontal glass-plates. it should be remembered that as the stems or other parts become more and more oblique with respect to the glasses, the figures traced on them necessarily become more and more magnified. the plants were protected from light, excepting whilst each observation was being made, and then the light, which was always a dim one, was allowed to enter so as to interfere as little as possible with the movement in progress; and we did not detect any evidence of such interference.

when observing the gradations between circumnu- [page 494] tation and heliotropism, we had the great advantage of being able to lessen the light; but with geotropism analogous experiments were of course impossible. we could, however, observe the movements of stems placed at first only a little from the perpendicular, in which case geotropism did not act with nearly so much power, as when the stems were horizontal and at right angles to the force. plants, also, were selected which were but feebly geotropic or apogeotropic, or had become so from having grown rather old. another plan was to place the stems at first so that they pointed 30 or 40o beneath the horizon, and then apogeotropism had a great amount of work to do before the stem was rendered upright; and in this case ordinary circumnutation was often not wholly obliterated. another plan was to observe in the evening plants which during the day had become greatly curved heliotropically; for their stems under the gradually waning light very slowly became upright through the action of apogeotropism; and in this case modified circumnutation was sometimes well displayed.

[apogeotropism.—plants were selected for observation almost by chance, excepting that they were taken from widely different families. if the stem of a plant which is even moderately sensitive to apogeotropism be placed horizontally, the upper growing part bends quickly upwards, so as to become perpendicular; and the line traced by joining the dots successively made on a glass-plate, is generally almost straight. for instance, a young cytisus fragrans, 12 inches in height, was placed so that the stem projected 10o beneath the horizon, and its course was traced during 72 h. at first it bent a very little downwards (fig. 182), owing no doubt to the weight of the stem, as this occurred with most of the other plants observed, though, as they were of course circumnutating, the short downward lines were often oblique. after three-quarters of an hour the stem began to curve upwards, quickly during the first two hours, but much more slowly during the afternoon and night, [page 495] and on the following day. during the second night it fell a little, and circumnutated during the following day; but it also moved a short distance to the right, which was caused by a little light having been accidentally admitted on this side. the stem was now inclined 60o above the horizon, and had therefore risen 70o. with time allowed it would probably have become upright, and no doubt would have continued circumnutating. the sole remarkable feature in the figure here given is the straightness of the course pursued. the stem, however, did not move upwards at an equable rate, and it sometimes stood almost or quite still. such periods probably represent attempts to circumnutate in a direction opposite to apogeotropism.

fig. 182. cytisus fragrans: apogeotropic movement of stem from 10o beneath

to 60o above horizon, traced on vertical glass, from 8.30 a.m. march 12th

to 10.30 p.m. 13th. the subsequent circumnutating movement is likewise

shown up to 6.45 a.m. on the 15th. nocturnal course represented, as usual,

by a broken line. movement not greatly magnified, and tracing reduced to

two-thirds of original scale.

the herbaceous stem of a verbena melindres (?) laid horizontally, rose in

7 h. so much that it could no longer be observed on the vertical glass

which stood in front of the plant. the long line which was traced was

almost absolutely straight. after the 7 h. it still continued to rise, but

now circumnutated slightly. on the following day it stood upright, and

circumnutated regularly, as shown in fig. 82, given in the fourth chapter.

the stems of several other plants which were highly sensitive to

apogeotropism rose up in almost straight lines, and

[page 496]

then suddenly began to circumnutate. a partially etiolated and somewhat old

hypocotyl of a seedling cabbage (2 3/4 inches in height) was so sensitive

that when placed at an angle of only 23o from the perpendicular, it became

vertical in 33 minutes. as it could not have been strongly acted upon by

apogeotropism in the above slightly inclined position, we expected that it

would have circumnutated, or at least have moved in a zigzag course.

accordingly, dots were made every 3 minutes; but, when these were joined,

the line was nearly straight. after this hypocotyl had become upright it

still moved onwards for half an hour in the same general direction, but in

a zigzag manner. during the succeeding 9 h. it circumnutated regularly, and

described 3 large ellipses. in this case apogeotropism, although acting at

a very unfavourable angle, quite overcame the ordinary circumnutating

movement.

fig. 183. beta vulgaris: apogeotropic movement of hypocotyl from 19o beneath horizon to a vertical position, with subsequent circumnutation, traced on a vertical and on a horizontal glass-plate, from 8.28 a.m. sept. 28th to 8.40 a.m. 29th. figure reduced to one-third of original scale.

the hypocotyls of beta vulgaris are highly sensitive to apogeotropism. one was placed so as to project 19o beneath the horizon; it fell at first a very little (see fig. 183), no doubt owing to its weight; but as it was circumnutating the line was [page 497] oblique. during the next 3 h. 8 m. it rose in a nearly straight line, passing through an angle of 109o, and then (at 12.3 p.m.) stood upright. it continued for 55 m. to move in the same general direction beyond the perpendicular, but in a zigzag course. it returned also in a zigzag line, and then circumnutated regularly, describing three large ellipses during the remainder of the day. it should be observed that the ellipses in this figure are exaggerated in size, relatively to the length of the upward straight line, owing to the position of the vertical and horizontal glass-plates. another and somewhat old hypocotyl was placed so as to stand at only 31o from the perpendicular, in which position apogeotropism acted on it with little force, and its course accordingly was slightly zigzag.

the sheath-like cotyledons of phalaris canariensis are extremely sensitive to apogeotropism. one was placed so as to project 40o beneath the horizon. although it was rather old and 1.3 inch in height, it became vertical in 4 h. 30 m., having passed through an angle of 130o in a nearly straight line. it then suddenly began to circumnutate in the ordinary manner. the cotyledons of this plant, after the first leaf has begun to protrude, are but slightly apogeotropic, though they still continue to circumnutate. one at this stage of development was placed horizontally, and did not become upright even after 13 h., and its course was slightly zigzag. so, again, a rather old hypocotyl of cassia tora (1 1/4 inch in height) required 28 h. to become upright, and its course was distinctly zigzag; whilst younger hypocotyls moved much more quickly and in a nearly straight line.

when a horizontally placed stem or other organ rises in a zigzag line, we may infer from the many cases given in our previous chapters, that we have a modified form of circumnutation; but when the course is straight, there is no evidence of circumnutation, and any one might maintain that this latter movement had been replaced by one of a wholly distinct kind. this view seems the more probable when (as sometimes occurred with the hypocotyls of brassica and beta, the stems of cucurbita, and the cotyledons of phalaris) the part in question, after bending up in a straight course, suddenly begins to circumnutate to the full extent and in the usual manner. a fairly good instance of a sudden change of this kind—that is, from a nearly straight upward movement to one of circumnutation—is shown in fig. 183; but more striking instances were occasionally observed with beta, brassica, and phalaris.

we will now describe a few cases in which it may be [page 498] seen how gradually circumnutation becomes changed into apogeotropism, under circumstances to be specified in each instance.

rubus idaeus (hybrid).—a young plant, 11 inches in height, growing in a pot, was placed horizontally; and the upward movement was traced during nearly 70 h.; but the plant, though growing vigorously, was not highly sensitive to apogeotropism, or it was not capable of quick movement, for during the above time it rose only 67o. we may see in the diagram (fig. 184) that during the first day of 12 h. it rose in a nearly straight line. when placed horizontally, it was evidently circumnutating, for it rose at first a little, notwithstanding the weight of the stem, and then sank down; so that it did not start on its permanently upward course until 1 h. 25 m. had elapsed. on the second day, by which time it had risen considerably, and when apogeotropism acted on it with somewhat less power, its course during 15 ? h. was clearly zigzag, and the rate of the upward movement was not equable. during the third day, also of 15 ? h., when apogeotropism acted on it with still less power, the stem plainly circumnutated, for it moved during this day 3 times up and 3 times down, 4 times to the left and 4 to the right. but the course was so complex that it could hardly be traced on the glass. we can, however, see that the successively formed irregular ellipses rose higher and higher. apogeotropism continued to act on the fourth morning, as the stem was still rising, though it now stood only 23o from the perpendicular. in this diagram the several stages may be followed by which an almost rectilinear, upward, apogeotropic course first becomes zigzag, and then changes into a circumnutating movement, with most of the successively formed, irregular ellipses directed upwards.

fig 184: rubus idaeus (hybrid): apogeotropic movement of stem, traced on a vertical glass during 3 days and 3 nights, from 10.40 a.m. march 18th to 8 a.m. 21st. figure reduced to one-half of the original scale.

lilium auratum.—a plant 23 inches in height was placed [page 499] horizontally, and the upper part of the stem rose 58o in 46 h., in the manner shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 185). we here see that during the whole of the second day of 15 ? h., the stem plainly circumnutated whilst bending upwards through apogeotropism. it had still to rise considerably, for when the last dot in the figure was made, it stood 32o from an upright position.

fig. 185. lilium auratum: apogeotropic movement of stem, traced on a vertical glass during 2 days and 2 nights, from 10.40 a.m. march 18th to 8 a.m. 20th. figure reduced to one-half of the original scale.

phalaris canariensis.—a cotyledon of this plant (1.3 inch in height) has already been described as rising in 4 h. 30 m. from 40o beneath the horizon into a vertical position, passing through an angle of 130o in a nearly straight line, and then abruptly beginning to circumnutate. another somewhat old cotyledon of the same height (but from which a true leaf had not yet protruded), was similarly placed at 40o beneath the horizon. for the first 4 h. it rose in a nearly straight course (fig. 186), so that by 1.10 p.m. it was highly inclined, and now apogeotropism acted on it with much less power than before, and it began to zigzag. at 4.15 p.m. (i.e. in 7 h. from the commencement) it stood vertically, and afterwards continued to circumnutate in the usual manner about the same spot. here then we have a graduated change from a straight upward apogeotropic course into circumnutation, instead of an abrupt change, as in the former case.

avena sativa.—the sheath-like cotyledons, whilst young, are strongly apogeotropic; and some which were placed at 45o beneath the horizon rose 90o in 7 or 8 h. in lines almost absolutely straight. an oldish cotyledon, from which the first leaf began to [page 500] protrude whilst the following observations were being made, was placed at 10o beneath the horizon, and it rose only 59o in 24h. it behaved rather differently from any other plant, observed by us, for during the first 4 ? h. it rose in a line not far from straight; during the next 6 ? h. it circumnutated, that is, it descended and again ascended in a strongly marked zigzag course; it then resumed its upward movement in a moderately straight line, and, with time allowed, no doubt would have become upright. in this case, after the first 4 ? h., ordinary circumnutation almost completely conquered for a time apogeotropism.

fig 186. phalaris canariensis: apogeotropic movement of cotyledon, traced on a vertical and horizontal glass, from 9.10 a.m. sept. 19th to 9 a.m. 20th. figure here reduced to one-fifth of original scale.

brassica oleracea.—the hypocotyls of several young seedlings placed horizontally, rose up vertically in the course of 6 or 7 h. in nearly straight lines. a seedling which had grown in darkness to a height of 2 1/4 inches, and was therefore rather old and not highly sensitive, was placed so that the hypocotyl projected at between 30o and 40o beneath the horizon. the upper part alone became curved [page 501] upwards, and rose during the first 3 h. 10 m. in a nearly straight line (fig. 187); but it was not possible to trace the upward movement on the vertical glass for the first 1 h. 10 m., so that the nearly straight line in the diagram ought to have been much longer. during the next 11 h. the hypocotyl circumnutated, describing irregular figures, each of which rose a little above the one previously formed. during the night and following early morning it continued to rise in a zigzag course, so that apogeotropism was still acting. at the close of our observations, after 23 h. (represented by the highest dot in the diagram) the hypocotyl was still 32o from the perpendicular. there can be little doubt that it would ultimately have become upright by describing an additional number of irregular ellipses, one above the other.

fig 187. brassica oleracea: apogeotropic movement of hypocotyl, traced on vertical glass, from 9.20 a.m., sept. 12th to 8.30 a.m. 13th. the upper part of the figure is more magnified than the lower part. if the whole course had been traced, the straight upright line would have been much longer. figure here reduced to one-third of the original scale.

apogeotropism retarded by heliotropism.—when the stem of any plant bends during the day towards a lateral light, the movement is opposed by apogeotropism; but as the light gradually wanes in the evening the latter power slowly gains the upper hand, and draws the stem back into a vertical position. here then we have a good opportunity for observing how apogeotropism acts when very nearly balanced by an opposing force. for instance, the plumule of tropaeolum majus (see former fig. 175) moved towards the dim evening light in a slightly zigzag line until 6.45 p.m., it then returned on its course until [page 502] 10.40 p.m., during which time it zigzagged and described an ellipse of considerable size. the hypocotyl of brassica oleracea (see former fig. 173) moved in a straight line to the light until 5.15 p.m., and then from the light, making in its backward course a great rectangular bend, and then returned for a short distance towards the former source of the light; no observations were made after 7.10 p.m., but during the night it recovered its vertical position. a hypocotyl of cassia tora moved in the evening in a somewhat zigzag line towards the failing light until 6 p.m., and was now bowed 20o from the perpendicular; it then returned on its course, making before 10.30 p.m. four great, nearly rectangular bends and almost completing an ellipse. several other analogous cases were casually observed, and in all of them the apogeotropic movement could be seen to consist of modified circumnutation.

apogeotropic movements effected by the aid of joints or pulvini.—movements of this kind are well known to occur in the gramineae, and are effected by means of the thickened bases of their sheathing leaves; the stem within being in this part thinner than elsewhere.* according to the analogy of all other pulvini, such joints ought to continue circumnutating for a long period, after the adjoining parts have ceased to grow. we therefore wished to ascertain whether this was the case with the gramineae; for if so, the upward curvature of their stems, when extended horizontally or laid prostrate, would be explained in accordance with our view—namely, that apogeotropism results from modified circumnutation. after these joints have curved upwards, they are fixed in their new position by increased growth along their lower sides.

lolium perenne.—a young stem, 7 inches in height, consisting of 3 internodes, with the flower-head not yet protruded, was selected for observation. a long and very thin glass filament was cemented horizontally to the stem close above the second joint, 3 inches above the ground. this joint was subsequently proved to be in an active condition, as its lower side swelled much through the action of apogeotropism (in the manner described by de vries) after the haulm had been fastened down for 24 h. in a horizontal position. the pot was

* this structure has been recently described by de vries in an interesting article, 'ueber die aufrichtung des gelagerten getreides,' in 'landwirthschaftliche jahrbücher,' 1880, p. 473. [page 503]

so placed that the end of the filament stood beneath the 2-inch object glass of a microscope with an eye-piece micrometer, each division of which equalled 1/500 of an inch. the end of the filament was repeatedly observed during 6 h., and was seen to be in constant movement; and it crossed 5 divisions of the micrometer (1/100 inch) in 2 h. occasionally it moved forwards by jerks, some of which were 1/1000 inch in length, and then slowly retreated a little, afterwards again jerking forwards. these oscillations were exactly like those described under brassica and dionaea, but they occurred only occasionally. we may therefore conclude that this moderately old joint was continually circumnutating on a small scale.

alopecurus pratensis.—a young plant, 11 inches in height, with the flower-head protruded, but with the florets not yet expanded, had a glass filament fixed close above the second joint, at a height of only 2 inches above the ground. the basal internode, 2 inches in length, was cemented to a stick to prevent any possibility of its circumnutating. the extremity of the filament, which projected about 50o above the horizon, was often observed during 24 h. in the same manner as in the last case. whenever looked at, it was always in movement, and it crossed 30 divisions of the micrometer (3/50 inch) in 3 ? h.; but it sometimes moved at a quicker rate, for at one time it crossed 5 divisions in 1 ? h. the pot had to be moved occasionally, as the end of the filament travelled beyond the field of vision; but as far as we could judge it followed during the daytime a semicircular course; and it certainly travelled in two different directions at right angles to one another. it sometimes oscillated in the same manner as in the last species, some of the jerks forwards being as much as 1/1000 of an inch. we may therefore conclude that the joints in this and the last species of grass long continue to circumnutate; so that this movement would be ready to be converted into an apogeotropic movement, whenever the stem was placed in an inclined or horizontal position.

movements of the flower-peduncles of oxalis carnosa, due to apogeotropism and other forces.—the movements of the main peduncle, and of the three or four sub-peduncles which each main peduncle of this plant bears, are extremely complex, and are determined by several distinct causes. whilst the flowers are expanded, both kinds of peduncles circumnutate about the same spot, as we have seen (fig. 91) in the fourth chapter. but soon after the flowers have begun to wither the sub- [page 504] peduncles bend downwards, and this is due to epinasty; for on two occasions when pots were laid horizontally, the sub-peduncles assumed the same position relatively to the main peduncle, as would have been the case if they had remained upright; that is, each of them formed with it an angle of about 40o. if they had been acted on by geotropism or apheliotropism (for the plant was illuminated from above), they would have directed themselves to the centre of the earth. a main peduncle was secured to a stick in an upright position, and one of the upright sub-peduncles which had been observed circumnutating whilst the flower was expanded, continued to do so for at least 24 h. after it had withered. it then began to bend downwards, and after 36 h. pointed a little beneath the horizon. a new figure was now begun (a, fig. 188), and the sub-peduncle was traced descending in a zigzag line from 7.20 p.m. on the 19th to 9 a.m. on the 22nd. it now pointed almost perpendicularly downwards, and the glass filament had to be removed and fastened transversely across the base of the young capsule. we expected that the sub-peduncle would have been motionless in its new position; but it continued slowly to swing, like a pendulum, from side to side, that is, in a plane at right angles to that in which it had descended. this circumnutating movement was observed from 9 a.m. on 22nd to 9 a.m. 24th, as shown at b in the diagram. we were not able to observe this particular sub-peduncle any longer; but it would certainly have gone on circumnutating until the capsule was nearly ripe (which requires only a short time), and it would then have moved upwards.

the upward movement (c, fig. 188) is effected in part by the whole sub-peduncle rising in the same manner as it had previously descended through epinasty—namely, at the joint where united to the main peduncle. as this upward movement occurred with plants kept in the dark and in whatever position the main peduncle was fastened, it could not have been caused by heliotropism or apogeotropism, but by hyponasty. besides this movement at the joint, there is another of a very different kind, for the sub-peduncle becomes upwardly bent in the middle part. if the sub-peduncle happens at the time to be inclined much downwards, the upward curvature is so great that the whole forms a hook. the upper end bearing the capsule, thus always places itself upright, and as this occurs in darkness, and in whatever position the main peduncle may have been secured, [page 505] the upward curvature cannot be due to heliotropism or hyponasty, but to apogeotropism.

fig. 188. oxalis carnosa: movements of flower-peduncle, traced on a vertical glass: a, epinastic downward movement; b, circumnutation whilst depending vertically; c, subsequent upward movement, due to apogeotropism and hyponasty combined. [page 506]

in order to trace this upward movement, a filament was fixed to a sub-peduncle bearing a capsule nearly ripe, which was beginning to bend upwards by the two means just described. its course was traced (see c, fig 188) during 53 h., by which time it had become nearly upright. the course is seen to be strongly zigzag, together with some little loops. we may therefore conclude that the movement consists of modified circumnutation.

the several species of oxalis probably profit in the following manner by their sub-peduncles first bending downwards and then upwards. they are known to scatter their seeds by the bursting of the capsule; the walls of which are so extremely thin, like silver paper, that they would easily be permeated by rain. but as soon as the petals wither, the sepals rise up and enclose the young capsule, forming a perfect roof over it as soon as the sub-peduncle has bent itself downwards. by its subsequent upward movement, the capsule stands when ripe at a greater height above the ground by twice the length of the sub-peduncle, than it did when dependent, and is thus able to scatter its seeds to a greater distance. the sepals, which enclose the ovarium whilst it is young, present an additional adaptation by expanding widely when the seeds are ripe, so as not to interfere with their dispersal. in the case of oxalis acetosella, the capsules are said sometimes to bury themselves under loose leaves or moss on the ground, but this cannot occur with those of o. carnosa, as the woody stem is too high.

oxalis acetosella.—the peduncles are furnished with a joint in

fig. 189. oxalis acetosella: course pursued by the upper part of a peduncle, whilst rising, traced from 11 a.m. june 1st to 9 a.m. 3rd. figure here reduced to one-half of the original scale.

the middle, so that the lower part answers to the main peduncle, [page 507] and the upper part to one of the sub-peduncles of o. carnosa. the upper part bends downwards, after the flower has begun to wither, and the whole peduncle then forms a hook; that this bending is due to epinasty we may infer from the case of o. carnosa. when the pod is nearly ripe, the upper part straightens itself and becomes erect; and this is due to hyponasty or apogeotropism, or both combined, and not to heliotropism, for it occurred in darkness. the short, hooked part of the peduncle of a cleistogamic flower, bearing a pod nearly ripe, was observed in the dark during three days. the apex of the pod at first pointed perpendicularly down, but in the course of three days rose 90o, so that it now projected horizontally. the course during the two latter days is shown in fig. 189; and it may be seen how greatly the peduncle, whilst rising, circumnutated. the lines of chief movement were at right angles to the plane of the originally hooked part. the tracing was not continued any longer; but after two additional days, the peduncle with its capsule had become straight and stood upright.]

concluding remarks on apogeotropism.—when apogeotropism is rendered by any means feeble, it acts, as shown in the several foregoing cases, by increasing the always present circumnutating movement in a direction opposed to gravity, and by diminishing that in the direction of gravity, as well as that to either side. the upward movement thus becomes unequal in rate, and is sometimes interrupted by stationary periods. whenever irregular ellipses or loops are still formed, their longer axes are almost always directed in the line of gravity, in an analogous manner as occurred with heliotropic movements in reference to the light. as apogeotropism acts more and more energetically, ellipses or loops cease to be formed, and the course becomes at first strongly, and then less and less zigzag, and finally rectilinear. from this gradation in the nature of the movement, and more especially from all growing parts, which alone (except when pulvini are present) are acted on by apogeotropism, con- [page 508] tinually circumnutating, we may conclude that even a rectilinear course is merely an extremely modified form of circumnutation. it is remarkable that a stem or other organ which is highly sensitive to apogeotropism, and which has bowed itself rapidly upwards in a straight line, is often carried beyond the vertical, as if by momentum. it then bends a little backwards to a point round which it finally circumnutates. two instances of this were observed with the hypocotyls of beta vulgaris, one of which is shown in fig. 183, and two other instances with the hypocotyls of brassica. this momentum-like movement probably results from the accumulated effects of apogeotropism. for the sake of observing how long such after-effects lasted, a pot with seedlings of beta was laid on its side in the dark, and the hypocotyls in 3 h. 15 m. became highly inclined. the pot, still in the dark, was then placed upright, and the movements of the two hypocotyls were traced; one continued to bend in its former direction, now in opposition to apogeotropism, for about 37 m., perhaps for 48 m.; but after 61 m. it moved in an opposite direction. the other hypocotyl continued to move in its former course, after being placed upright, for at least 37 m.

different species and different parts of the same species are acted on by apogeotropism in very different degrees. young seedlings, most of which circumnutate quickly and largely, bend upwards and become vertical in much less time than do any older plants observed by us; but whether this is due to their greater sensitiveness to apogeotropism, or merely to their greater flexibility we do not know. a hypocotyl of beta traversed an angle of 109o in 3 h. 8 m., and a cotyledon of phalaris an angle of 130o in 4 h. 30 m. on the other hand, the stem of a herbaceous [page 509] verbena rose 90o in about 24 h.; that of rubus 67o, in 70 h.; that of cytisus 70o, in 72 h.; that of a young american oak only 37o, in 72 h. the stem of a young cyperus alternifolius rose only 11o in 96 h.; the bending being confined to near its base. though the sheath-like cotyledons of phalaris are so extremely sensitive to apogeotropism, the first true leaves which protrude from them exhibited only a trace of this action. two fronds of a fern, nephrodium molle, both of them young and one with the tip still inwardly curled, were kept in a horizontal position for 46 h., and during this time they rose so little that it was doubtful whether there was any true apogeotropic movement.

the most curious case known to us of a difference in sensitiveness to gravitation, and consequently of movement, in different parts of the same organ, is that offered by the petioles of the cotyledons of ipomoea leptophylla. the basal part for a short length where united to the undeveloped hypocotyl and radicle is strongly geotropic, whilst the whole upper part is strongly apogeotropic. but a portion near the blades of the cotyledons is after a time acted on by epinasty and curves downwards, for the sake of emerging in the form of an arch from the ground; it subsequently straightens itself, and is then again acted on by apogeotropism.

a branch of cucurbita ovifera, placed horizontally, moved upwards during 7 h. in a straight line, until it stood at 40o above the horizon; it then began to circumnutate, as if owing to its trailing nature it had no tendency to rise any higher. another upright branch was secured to a stick, close to the base of a tendril, and the pot was then laid horizontally in the dark. in this position the tendril circumnutated and made [page 510] several large ellipses during 14 h., as it likewise did on the following day; but during this whole time it was not in the least affected by apogeotropism. on the other hand, when branches of another cucurbitaceous plant, echinocytis lobata, were fixed in the dark so that the tendrils depended beneath the horizon, these began immediately to bend upwards, and whilst thus moving they ceased to circumnutate in any plain manner; but as soon as they had become horizontal they recommenced to revolve conspicuously.* the tendrils of passiflora gracilis are likewise apogeotropic. two branches were tied down so that their tendrils pointed many degrees beneath the horizon. one was observed for 8 h., during which time it rose, describing two circles, one above the other. the other tendril rose in a moderately straight line during the first 4 h., making however one small loop in its course; it then stood at about 45o above the horizon, where it circumnutated during the remaining 8 h. of observation.

a part or organ which whilst young is extremely sensitive to apogeotropism ceases to be so as it grows old; and it is remarkable, as showing the independence of this sensitiveness and of the circumnutating movement, that the latter sometimes continues for a time after all power of bending from the centre of the earth has been lost. thus a seedling orange bearing only 3 young leaves, with a rather stiff stem, did not curve in the least upwards during 24 h. whilst extended horizontally; yet it circumnutated all the time over a small space. the hypocotyl of a young seedling of cassia tora, similarly placed, became vertical in 12 h.; that of an older seedling, 1 1/4 inch in height,

* for details see 'the movements and habits of climbing plants,' 1875, p. 131. [page 511]

became so in 28 h.; and that of another still older one, 1 ? inch in height, remained horizontal during two days, but distinctly circumnutated during this whole time.

when the cotyledons of phalaris or avena are laid horizontally, the uppermost part first bends upwards, and then the lower part; consequently, after the lower part has become much curved upwards, the upper part is compelled to curve backwards in an opposite direction, in order to straighten itself and to stand vertically; and this subsequent straightening process is likewise due to apogeotropism. the upper part of 8 young cotyledons of phalaris were made rigid by being cemented to thin glass rods, so that this part could not bend in the least; nevertheless, the basal part was not prevented from curving upward. a stem or other organ which bends upwards through apogeotropism exerts considerable force; its own weight, which has of course to be lifted, was sufficient in almost every instance to cause the part at first to bend a little downwards; but the downward course was often rendered oblique by the simultaneous circumnutating movement. the cotyledons of avena placed horizontally, besides lifting their own weight, were able to furrow the soft sand above them, so as to leave little crescentic open spaces on the lower sides of their bases; and this is a remarkable proof of the force exerted.

as the tips of the cotyledons of phalaris and avena bend upwards through the action of apogeotropism before the basal part, and as these same tips when excited by a lateral light transmit some influence to the lower part, causing it to bend, we thought that the same rule might hold good with apogeotropism. consequently, the tips of 7 cotyledons of phalaris were [page 512] cut off for a length in three cases of .2 inch and in the four other cases of .14, .12, .1, and .07 inch. but these cotyledons, after being extended horizontally, bowed themselves upwards as effectually as the unmutilated specimens in the same pots, showing that sensitiveness to gravitation is not confined to their tips.

geotropism.

this movement is directly the reverse of apogeotropism. many organs bend downwards through epinasty or apheliotropism or from their own weight; but we have met with very few cases of a downward movement in sub-a?rial organs due to geotropism. we shall however, give one good instance in the following section, in the case of trifolium subterraneum, and probably in that of arachis hypogaea.

on the other hand, all roots which penetrate the ground (including the modified root-like petioles of megarrhiza and ipomoea leptophylla) are guided in their downward course by geotropism; and so are many a?rial roots, whilst others, as those of the ivy, appear to be indifferent to its action. in our first chapter the movements of the radicles of several seedlings were described. we may there see (fig. 1) how a radicle of the cabbage, when pointing vertically upwards so as to be very little acted on by geotropism, circumnutated; and how another (fig. 2) which was at first placed in an inclined position bowed itself downwards in a zigzag line, sometimes remaining stationary for a time. two other radicles of the cabbage travelled downwards in almost rectilinear courses. a radicle of the bean placed upright (fig. 20) made a great sweep and zigzagged; but as it sank downwards and was more strongly acted on by geotropism, it moved in an [page 513] almost straight course. a radicle of cucurbita, directed upwards (fig. 26), also zigzagged at first, and described small loops; it then moved in a straight line. nearly the same result was observed with the radicles of zea mays. but the best evidence of the intimate connection between circumnutation and geotropism was afforded by the radicles of phaseolus, vicia, and quercus, and in a less degree by those of zea and aesculus (see figs. 18, 19, 21, 41, and 52); for when these were compelled to grow and slide down highly inclined surfaces of smoked glass, they left distinctly serpentine tracks.

[the burying of seed-capsules: trifolium subterraneum.—the flower-heads of this plant are remarkable from producing only 3 or 4 perfect flowers, which are situated exteriorly. all the other many flowers abort, and are modified into rigid points, with a bundle of vessels running up their centres. after a time 5 long, elastic, claw-like projections, which represent the divisions of the calyx, are developed on their summits. as soon as the perfect flowers wither they bend downwards, supposing the peduncle to stand upright, and they then closely surround its upper part. this movement is due to epinasty, as is likewise the case with the flowers of t. repens. the imperfect central flowers ultimately follow, one after the other, the same course. whilst the perfect flowers are thus bending down, the whole peduncle curves downwards and increases much in length, until the flower-head reaches the ground. vaucher* says that when the plant is so placed that the heads cannot soon reach the ground, the peduncles grow to the extraordinary length of from 6 to 9 inches. in whatever position the branches may be placed, the upper part of the peduncle at first bends vertically upwards through heliotropism; but as soon as the flowers begin to wither the downward curvature of the whole peduncle commences. as this latter movement occurred in complete darkness, and with peduncles arising from upright and from dependent branches, it cannot be due to apheliotropism or to epinasty, but must be attributed to geotropism. nineteen

* 'hist. phys. des plantes d'europe,' tom. ii. 1841, p. 106. [page 514]

upright flower-heads, arising from branches in all sorts of positions, on plants growing in a warm greenhouse, were marked with thread, and after 24 h. six of them were vertically dependent; these therefore had travelled through 180o in this time. ten were extended sub-horizontally, and these had moved through about 90o. three very young peduncles had as yet moved only a little downwards, but after an additional 24 h. were greatly inclined.

at the time when the flower-heads reach the ground, the younger imperfect flowers in the centre are still pressed closely together, and form a conical projection; whereas the perfect and imperfect flowers on the outside are upturned and closely surround the peduncle. they are thus adapted to offer as little resistance, as the case admits of, in penetrating the ground, though the diameter of the flower-head is still considerable. the means by which this penetration is effected will presently be described. the flower-heads are able to bury themselves in common garden mould, and easily in sand or in fine sifted cinders packed rather closely. the depth to which they penetrated, measured from the surface to the base of the head, was between 1/4 and ? inch, but in one case rather above 0.6 inch. with a plant kept in the house, a head partly buried itself in sand in 6 h.: after 3 days only the tips of the reflexed calyces were visible, and after 6 days the whole had disappeared. but with plants growing out of doors we believe, from casual observations, that they bury themselves in a much shorter time.

after the heads have buried themselves, the central aborted flowers increase considerably in length and rigidity, and become bleached. they gradually curve, one after the other, upwards or towards the peduncle, in the same manner as did the perfect flowers at first. in thus moving, the long claws on their summits carry with them some earth. hence a flower-head which has been buried for a sufficient time, forms a rather large ball, consisting of the aborted flowers, separated from one another by earth, and surrounding the little pods (the product of the perfect flowers) which lie close round the upper part of the peduncle. the calyces of the perfect and imperfect flowers are clothed with simple and multicellular hairs, which have the power of absorption; for when placed in a weak solution of carbonate of ammonia (2 gr. to 1 oz. of water) their protoplasmic contents immediately became aggregated and afterwards displayed the usual slow movements. this clover generally [page 515] grows in dry soil, but whether the power of absorption by the hairs on the buried flower-heads is of any importance to them we do not know. only a few of the flower-heads, which from their position are not able to reach the ground and bury themselves, yield seeds; whereas the buried ones never failed, as far as we observed, to produce as many seeds as there had been perfect flowers.

we will now consider the movements of the peduncle whilst

fig. 190. trifolium subterraneum: downward movement of peduncle from 19o beneath the horizon to a nearly vertically dependent position, traced from 11 a.m. july 22nd to the morning of 25th. glass filament fixed transversely across peduncle, at base of flower-head.

curving down to the ground. we have seen in chap. iv., fig. 92, p. 225, that an upright young flower-head circumnutated conspicuously; and that this movement continued after the peduncle had begun to bend downwards. the same peduncle was observed when inclined at an angle of 19o above the horizon, and it circumnutated during two days. another [page 516] which was already curved 36o beneath the horizon, was observed from 11 a.m. july 22nd to the 27th, by which latter date it had become vertically dependent. its course during the first 12 h. is shown in fig. 190, and its position on the three succeeding mornings until the 25th, when it was nearly vertical. during the first day the peduncle clearly circumnutated, for it moved 4 times down and 3 times up; and on each succeeding day, as it sank downwards, the same movement continued, but was only occasionally observed and was less strongly marked. it should be stated that these peduncles were observed under a double skylight in the house, and that they generally moved downwards very much more slowly than those on plants growing out of doors or in the greenhouse.

fig. 191. trifolium subterraneum: circumnutating movement of peduncle, whilst the flower-head was burying itself in sand, with the reflexed tips of the calyx still visible; traced from 8 a.m. july 26th to 9 a.m. on 27th. glass filament fixed transversely across peduncle, near flower-head.

fig. 192. trifolium subterraneum: movement of same peduncle, with flower-head completely buried beneath the sand; traced from 8 a.m. to 7.15 p.m. on july 29th.

the movement of another vertically dependent peduncle with the flower-head standing half an inch above the ground, was traced, and again when it first touched the ground; in both cases irregular ellipses were described every 4 or 5 h. a peduncle on a plant which had been brought into the house, moved from an upright into a vertically dependent position in a single day; and here the course during the first 12 h. was nearly straight, but with a few well-marked zigzags which betrayed the essential nature of the movement. lastly the circumnutation of a peduncle was traced during 51 h. whilst in the act of burying itself obliquely in a little heap of sand. after it had buried itself to such a depth that the tips of the sepals were alone visible, the above figure (fig 191) was traced during 25 h. when the flower-head had completely disappeared beneath the sand, another tracing was made during 11 h. 45 m. (fig. 192); and here again we see that the peduncle was circumnutating. [page 517]

any one who will observe a flower-head burying itself, will be convinced that the rocking movement, due to the continued circumnutation of the peduncle, plays an important part in the act. considering that the flower-heads are very light, that the peduncles are long, thin, and flexible, and that they arise from flexible branches, it is incredible that an object as blunt as one of these flower-heads could penetrate the ground by means of the growing force of the peduncle, unless it were aided by the rocking movement. after a flower-head has penetrated the ground to a small depth, another and efficient agency comes into play; the central rigid aborted flowers, each terminating in five long claws, curve up towards the peduncle; and in doing so can hardly fail to drag the head down to a greater depth, aided as this action is by the circumnutating movement, which continues after the flower-head has completely buried itself. the aborted flowers thus act something like the hands of the mole, which force the earth backwards and the body forwards.

it is well known that the seed-capsules of various widely distinct plants either bury themselves in the ground, or are produced from imperfect flowers developed beneath the surface. besides the present case, two other well-marked instances will be immediately given. it is probable that one chief good thus gained is the protection of the seeds from animals which prey on them. in the case of t. subterraneum, the seeds are not only concealed by being buried, but are likewise protected by being closely surrounded by the rigid, aborted flowers. we may the more confidently infer that protection is here aimed at, because the seeds of several species in this same genus are protected in other ways;* namely, by the swelling and closure of the calyx, or by the persistence and bending down of the standard-petal, etc. but the most curious instance is that of t. globosum, in which the upper flowers are sterile, as in t. subterraneum, but are here developed into large brushes of hairs which envelop and protect the seed-bearing flowers. nevertheless, in all these cases the capsules, with their seeds, may profit, as mr. t. thiselton dyer has remarked,** by their being kept somewhat damp; and the advantage of such dampness perhaps throws light on the presence of the absorbent hairs on the buried flower-heads of t. subterraneum. according to mr. bentham, as quoted by mr. dyer,

* vaucher, 'hist. phys. des plantes d'europe,' tom. ii. p. 110.

** see his interesting article in 'nature,' april 4th, 1878, p. 446. [page 518]

the prostrate habit of helianthemum prostratum "brings the capsules in contact with the surface of the ground, postpones their maturity, and so favours the seeds attaining a larger size." the capsules of cyclamen and of oxalis acetosella are only occasionally buried, and this only beneath dead leaves or moss. if it be an advantage to a plant that its capsules should be kept damp and cool by being laid on the ground, we have in these latter cases the first step, from which the power of penetrating the ground, with the aid of the always present movement of circumnutation, might afterwards have been gained.

arachis hypogoea.—the flowers which bury themselves, rise from stiff branches a few inches above the ground, and stand upright. after they have fallen off, the gynophore, that is the part which supports the ovarium, grows to a great length, even to 3 or 4 inches, and bends perpendicularly downwards. it resembles closely a peduncle, but has a smooth and pointed apex, which contains the ovules, and is at first not in the least enlarged. the apex after reaching the ground penetrates it, in one case observed by us to a depth of 1 inch, and in another to 0.7 inch. it there becomes developed into a large pod. flowers which are seated too high on the plant for the gynophore to reach the ground are said* never to produce pods.

the movement of a young gynophore, rather under an inch in length and vertically dependent, was traced during 46 h. by means of a glass filament (with sights) fixed transversely a little above the apex. it plainly circumnutated (fig. 193) whilst increasing in length and growing downwards. it was then raised up, so as to be extended almost horizontally, and the terminal part curved itself downwards, following a nearly straight course during 12 h., but with one attempt to circumnutate, as shown in fig. 194. after 24 h. it had become nearly vertical. whether the exciting cause of the downward movement is geotropism or apheliotropism was not ascertained; but probably it is not apheliotropism, as all the gynophores grew straight down towards the ground, whilst the light in the hot-house entered from one side as well as from above. another and older gynophore, the apex of which had nearly reached the ground, was observed during 3 days in the same manner as the first-mentioned short one; and it was found to be always circumnutating. during the first 34 h. it described a figure which

* 'gard. chronicle,' 1857, p. 566. [page 519]

represented four ellipses. lastly, a long gynophore, the apex of which had buried itself to the depth of about half an inch, was

fig. 193 arachis hypogoea: circumnutation of vertically dependent young gynophore, traced on a vertical glass from 10 a.m. july 31st to 8 a.m. aug. 2nd.

fig. 194. arachis hypogoea: downward movement of same young gynophore, after being extended horizontally; traced on a vertical glass from 8.30 a.m. to 8.30 p.m. aug. 2nd.

pulled up and extended horizontally: it quickly began to curve downwards in a zigzag line; but on the following day the ter- [page 520] minal bleached portion was a little shrivelled. as the gynophores are rigid and arise from stiff branches, and as they terminate in sharp smooth points, it is probable that they could penetrate the ground by the mere force of growth. but this action must be aided by the circumnutating movement, for fine sand, kept moist, was pressed close round the apex of a gynophore which had reached the ground, and after a few hours it was surrounded by a narrow open crack. after three weeks this gynophore was uncovered, and the apex was found at a depth of rather above half an inch developed into a small, white, oval pod.

amphicarpoea monoica.—this plant produces long thin shoots, which twine round a support and of course circumnutate. early in the summer shorter shoots are produced from the lower parts of the plant, which grow perpendicularly downwards and penetrate the ground. one of these, terminating in a minute bud, was observed to bury itself in sand to a depth of 0.2 inch in 24 h. it was lifted up and fixed in an inclined position about 25o beneath the horizon, being feebly illuminated from above. in this position it described two vertical ellipses in 24 h.; but on the following day, when brought into the house, it circumnutated only a very little round the same spot. other branches were seen to penetrate the ground, and were afterwards found running like roots beneath the surface for a length of nearly two inches, and they had grown thick. one of these, after thus running, had emerged into the air. how far circumnutation aids these delicate branches in entering the ground we do not know; but the reflexed hairs with which they are clothed will assist in the work. this plant produces pods in the air, and others beneath the ground; which differ greatly in appearance. asa gray says* that it is the imperfect flowers on the creeping branches near the base of the plant which produce the subterranean pods; these flowers, therefore, must bury themselves like those of arachis. but it may be suspected that the branches which were seen by us to penetrate the ground also produce subterranean flowers and pods.]

diageotropism.

besides geotropism and apogeotropism, there is, according to frank, an allied form of movement,

* 'manual of the botany of the northern united states,' 1856, p. 106. [page 521]

namely, "transverse-geotropism," or diageotropism, as we may call it for the sake of matching our other terms. under the influence of gravitation certain parts are excited to place themselves more or less transversely to the line of its action.* we made no observations on this subject, and will here only remark that the position of the secondary radicles of various plants, which extend horizontally or are a little inclined downwards, would probably be considered by frank as due to transverse-geotropism. as it has been shown in chap. i. that the secondary radicles of cucurbita made serpentine tracks on a smoked glass-plate, they clearly circumnutated, and there can hardly be a doubt that this holds good with other secondary radicles. it seems therefore highly probable that they place themselves in their diageotropic position by means of modified circumnutation.

finally, we may conclude that the three kinds of movement which have now been described and which are excited by gravitation, consist of modified circumnutation. different parts or organs on the same plant, and the same part in different species, are thus excited to act in a widely different manner. we can see no reason why the attraction of gravity should directly modify the state of turgescence and subsequent growth of one part on the upper side and of another part on the lower side. we are therefore led to infer that both geotropic, apogeotropic, and diageotropic movements, the purpose of which we can generally understand,

* elfving has lately described ('arbeiten des bot. instituts in würzburg,' b. ii. 1880, p. 489) an excellent instance of such movements in the rhizomes of certain plants. [page 522]

have been acquired for the advantage of the plant by the modification of the ever-present movement of circumnutation. this, however, implies that gravitation produces some effect on the young tissues sufficient to serve as a guide to the plant. [page 523]