the puna, or the high table-lands of peru and bolivia.
striking contrast with the llanos—northern character of their climate—the chuñu—the surumpe—the veta: its influence upon man, horses, mules, and cats—the vegetation of the puna—the maca—the llama: its invaluable services—the huanacu—the alpaca—the vicuñas: mode of hunting them—the chacu—the bolas—the chinchilla—the condor—wild bulls and wild dogs—lovely mountain valleys.
between the two mighty parallel mountain chains of the cordillera and the andes,3 the giant bulwarks of western south america, we find, extending throughout the whole length of peru and bolivia, at a height of from ten to fourteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, vast plateaus, or table-lands, which are named, in the language of the country, the puna, or ‘the uninhabited.’ they present a striking contrast to the llanos of venezuela; for though situated, like these sultry plains, within the torrid zone, their great elevation paralyses the effects of a vertical sun, and transfers the rigours of the north to the very centre of the tropical world.
21 their climate is hardly less bleak and winterly than that of the high snow-ridges which bound them on either side. cold winds sweep almost constantly over their surface, and during four months of the year they are daily visited by fearful storms. the suddenly darkened sky discharges, under terrific thunder and lightning, enormous masses of snow, until the sun breaks forth again. but soon the clouds obscure its brilliancy; and thus winter and summer, here reign alternately,—not, as in our temperate climes, during several months, but within the short space of a single day. in a few hours the change of temperature often amounts to forty or forty-five degrees, and the sudden fall of the thermometer is rendered still more disagreeable to the traveller by biting winds, which so violently irritate the skin of the hands and face, that it springs open and bleeds from every fissure. an intolerable burning and swelling accompany these wounds, so as to prevent the use of the hands for several days. on the lips it is also very disagreeable, as the pain increases by eating and speaking; and an incautious laugh produces deep rents, which bleed for a long time and heal with difficulty.
this evil, which is called chuñu by the peruvian indians, is also very painful on the eyelids; but it becomes absolutely insupportable by the addition of the surumpe, a very acute and violent inflammation of the eyes, caused by the sun’s reflection from the snow. in consequence of the rarefied air and the biting winds, the visual organs are constantly in a state of irritation, which renders them far more sensitive to any strong light than would be the case in a more congenial atmosphere. the rapid change from a clouded sky to the brilliancy of a sunny snow-field, causes a painful stinging and burning, which increases from minute to minute to such a degree, that even the stoical indian, when afflicted with this evil, will sit down on the road-side and utter cries of anguish and despair. chronical ophthalmia, suppuration of the eyelids, and total blindness, are the frequent consequences of an intense surumpe, against which the traveller over the high lands carefully guards himself by green spectacles or a dark veil.
a third plague of the wanderer in the puna is the veta, which is occasioned by the great rarefaction of the air. its first symptoms, which generally appear at an elevation of 12,00022 feet, consist in giddiness, buzzing in the ear, headache, and nausea. their intensity increases with the elevation, and is aggravated by a lassitude, which augments to such a degree as to render walking impossible, by a great difficulty of respiration, and violent palpitation of the heart. absolute rest mitigates these symptoms; but on continuing the journey they reappear with increased violence, and are then frequently accompanied by fainting and vomiting. the capillary vessels of the eye, nose, and lips burst, and emit drops of blood. the same phenomenon appears also in the mucous membrane of the respiratory and digestive organs; so that blood-spitting and bloody diarrhœa frequently accompany the veta, and are sometimes so violent as to cause death.
the influence of diminished atmospheric pressure likewise shows itself in the horses that are unaccustomed to mountain travelling. they begin to pace more slowly, frequently stand still, tremble all over, and fall upon the ground. if not allowed to rest, they invariably die. by way of a restorative their nostrils are slit open, which seems to be of use by allowing a greater influx of air.
as the dry sand of the rainless coast prevents the putrefaction of animal substances which are buried in it, the power of the dry puna-winds in a like manner arrests the progress of decomposition. under their influence, a dead mule changes in a few days into a mummy, so that even the entrails do not exhibit the least sign of putrefaction.
it may easily be imagined that, under these circumstances, vegetation can only appear in stunted proportions, and indeed the puna presents the monotonous aspect of a northern steppe, its whole surface being covered with dun and meagre herbage, which at all times gives it an autumnal or even wintry aspect. a few arid compositæ and yellow echinocacti are quite unable to relieve the dreary landscape; and even the large-flowered calceolarias, the blue gentians, the sweet-smelling verbenas, and many other alpine plants, the usual ornaments of the higher mountain regions, are here almost suffocated by the dense grasses. but rarely the eye meets with a solitary queñua tree (polylepis racemosa) of crippled growth, or with large spaces covered with red-brown ratania shrubs, which are carefully collected for fuel, or for roofing the wretched huts of the scanty population of these desolate highlands.
23 the cold climate of the puna naturally confines agriculture to very narrow limits. the only cultivated plant which grows to maturity is the maca (a species of tropæolum), the tuberous roots of which are used like the potato, and form in many parts the chief food of the inhabitants. this plant grows best at an elevation of twelve or thirteen thousand feet, and is not planted in the lower regions, where its roots are said to be completely unpalatable. barley is also cultivated in the puna, but never ripens, and is cut green for forage.
the animal kingdom is more amply represented; for there is no want of food on the grass-covered plains, and wherever this exists, there is room for the development of animals appropriate to the climate.
the llama.
thus the llama and its near relations, the alpaca, the huanacu, and the vicuña, the largest four-footed animals which peru possessed before the spaniards introduced the horse and the ox, are all natives of the puna. long before the invasion of pizarro, the llama was used by the ancient peruvians as a beast of burthen, and was not less serviceable to them than the camel to the arabs of the desert. the wool served for the fabrication of a coarse cloth; the milk and flesh, as food; the skin, as a warm covering or mantle; and without the assistance of the llama, it would have been impossible for the indians to transport goods or provisions over the high table-lands of the andes, or for the incas to have founded and maintained their vast empire. the llama is also historically remarkable as being the only animal domesticated by the aboriginal americans. the reindeer of the north4 and the bison of the prairies enjoyed then, as they do now, their savage independence: the llama alone was obliged to submit to the yoke of man. but the llama reminds us of the dromedary not only by a similar destiny and similar services, but also by a strong resemblance in form and structure, so as to be classed by naturalists in the same family. the unsightly hump is wanting, but the llama possesses the same callosities on the breast and24 on the knees, the same divided hoof and a similar formation of the toes and stomach. thus nature has formed in the llama a species of mountain camel, admirably adapted to the exigencies of a totally different soil and climate; and surely it is not one of the least wonders of creation to see animals so similar in many respects emerge, without any connecting links, at the opposite extremities of the globe.
the ordinary load of the llama is about one hundred pounds, and its rate of travelling with this burthen over rugged mountain passes is from twelve to fifteen miles a-day. when overloaded it lies down, and will not rise until relieved of part of its burthen. ‘the indians,’ says tschudi, ‘often travel with large herds of llamas to the coast to fetch salt. their journeys are very small, rarely more than three or four leagues; for the llamas never feed after sunset, and are thus obliged to graze while journeying, or to rest for several hours. while reposing they utter a peculiar low tone, which at a distance resembles the sound of an æolian harp. a loaded herd of llamas traversing the high table-lands affords an interesting spectacle. slowly and stately they proceed, casting inquisitive glances on every side. on seeing any strange object which excites their fears, they immediately scatter in every direction, and their poor drivers have great difficulty to gather the herd.’ the indians, who are very fond of these animals, decorate their ears with ribbons, hang little bells about their necks, and always caress them before placing the burthen on their back. when one of them drops from fatigue, they kneel at its side and strive to encourage it for further exertion by a profusion of flattering epithets and gentle warnings. yet, in spite of good treatment, a number of llamas perish on the way to the coast or to the forests, as they cannot stand the hot climate.
the huanacu is of a greater size than the llama, and resembles it so much that it was supposed to be the wild variety until tschudi, in his ‘fauna peruana,’ pointed out the specific differences between both. its fleece is shorter and less fine; its colour brown, the under parts being whitish—but varieties of colour are never observed, as in the llama; the face is blackish grey, lighter and almost white about the lips. the huanacus generally live in small troops of from five to seven. they are very shy, but when caught young are easily tamed, though they25 always remain spiteful, and can hardly ever be trained to carry burthens.
the alpaca is smaller than the llama, and resembles the sheep; but its neck is longer, and it has a more elegantly formed head. the wool which, on account of its admirable qualities, is extensively used in england, is very long, soft, fine, and of a silky lustre—sometimes quite white or black, but often also variegated.
the alpaca.
shy, like the chamois or the steinbock, the vicuña inhabits the most sequestered mountain-valleys of the andes. it is of a more elegant shape than the alpaca, with a longer and more graceful neck, and a more curly wool of extreme fineness. during the rainy season, the vicuñas retire to the crests of the cordillera, where vegetation is reduced to the scantiest limits; but they never venture on the bare summits, as their hoof, accustomed to tread only on the turf, is very tender and sensitive. when pursued, they never fly to the ice-fields, but only along the grass-grown slopes. in the dry season, when vegetation withers on the heights, they descend to seek their food along the sources and swampy grounds. from six to fifteen she-vicuñas live under the protection and guidance of a single male, who always remains a few paces apart from his harem, and keeps watch with the most attentive care. at the least approach of danger he immediately gives the alarm by a shrill cry, and rapidly steps forward. the herd, immediately assembling, turns inquisitively towards the side whence danger is apprehended, and then, suddenly wheeling, flies, at first slowly, and constantly looking back, but soon with unrivalled swiftness. the male covers the retreat, frequently standing still and watching the enemy. the females reward the faithful care of their leader with an equally rare attachment; for when he is wounded or killed, they will keep running round him with shrill notes of sorrow, and rather be shot than flee. the cry of the vicuña is a peculiar whistle, which, though greatly resembling the shrill neighing of the llama, may easily be distinguished by a practised ear, when it suddenly pierces the thin air of the puna, even from a distance where the sharpest eye is no longer able to distinguish the form of the animal.
26 the hunting of the vicuñas, which is very singular and interesting, takes place in april or may. each family in the puna villages is obliged to furnish the contingent of one of its members at least; and the widows accompany the hunters, to serve as cooks. the whole troop, frequently consisting of seventy or eighty persons, and carrying bundles of poles and large quantities of cordage, sets out for the more elevated plateaus, where the vicuñas are grazing. in an appropriate spot the poles are fixed into the earth, at intervals of twelve or fifteen paces, and united by the cordage, about two feet from the ground. in this manner a circular space, called chacu, of about half a league in circumference, is enclosed, leaving on one side an entrance several hundred paces wide. the women attach to the cordage coloured rags, which wave to and fro in the wind. as soon as the chacu is ready, the men disperse, and forming a ring many miles in circumference, drive all the intervening vicuña herds through the entrance into the circle, which is closed as soon as a sufficient number has been collected. the shy animals do not venture to spring over the cord and its fluttering rags, and are thus easily killed by the bolas of the indians. these bolas consist of three balls of lead or stone, two of which are heavy, and one lighter, each ball being attached to a long leather thong. the thongs are knotted together at their free extremity. when used, the lighter ball is taken in the hand, and the two others swung in a wide circle over the head. at a certain distance from the mark, about fifteen or twenty paces, the hand-ball is let loose, and then all three fly in hissing circles towards the object which they are intended to strike, and encompass it in their formidable embrace. the hindlegs of the vicuñas are generally aimed at. it is no easy matter to throw the bolas adroitly, particularly when on horseback; for the novice often wounds either himself or his horse mortally, by not giving the balls the proper swing, or letting them escape too soon from his hand. the flesh of the vicuñas is divided in equal portions among the hunters. when dried in the air, and then pounded and mixed with spanish pepper, its taste is not unpleasing. the church, however, manages to get the best part of the animal, for the priest generally appropriates the skin. as soon as all the entrapped vicuñas are killed, the chacu is taken to27 pieces, and set up again ten or twelve miles further off. the whole chase lasts a week, and the number of the animals slaughtered frequently amounts to several hundreds.
in the times of the incas, the puna chases were conducted on a much grander scale. annually from 25,000 to 30,000 indians assembled, who were obliged to drive all the wild animals from a circuit of more than a hundred miles into an enormous chacu. as the circle narrowed, the ranks of the indians were doubled and trebled, so that no animal could escape. the pernicious quadrupeds, such as bears, cuguars, and foxes, were all killed, but only a limited number of stags, deer, vicuñas, and huanacus; for the provident incas did not lose sight of the wants of futurity, and were more economical of the lives of animals than their brutal successors, the christian spaniards, were of the lives of men.
in spite of the persecutions to which they are subject, not only from hunters but from the ravenous condor, who frequently robs them of their young, the vicuñas do not seem to diminish, and are often seen roaming about in large numbers—the inaccessible wilds to which they are able to retreat amply securing them against extermination.
chinchilla.
besides these four remarkable camelides, we find among the animals peculiar to the puna the stag-like tarush (cervus antisiensis); the timid deer, who also descends from the high mountain-plains into the coast-valleys and the forest region; the viscachas and the chinchillas. the peruvian viscachas (lagidium peruanum and pallipes), live at an elevation of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet, between 33° and 18° s. lat., and resemble the rabbit in form and colour, but have shorter ears and a long rough tail. their far is soft, but not nearly so fine as that of the near-related chinchilla (chinchilla lanigera). this little creature, which is somewhat larger than our squirrel, has large and brilliant eyes, an erect tail, strong bristles on the upper lip, and almost naked, rounded ears. it lives in burrows, feeding chiefly upon roots, and is found in such numbers in the chilian andes that its holes considerably increase the difficulty of travelling. the fur is too well known to require28 any further description. where ruminants and rodents abound it may easily be imagined that beasts of prey will not be wanting. the cunning fox (canis azaræ) waylays both the chinchillas and the water-birds; and, impelled by hunger, the puma, or american lion, ascends even to the borders of eternal snow in quest of the vicuña and the deer. but the monarch of the puna is unquestionably the mighty condor, who, soaring over the highest peaks of the andes, sees on one side the pacific rolling its heavy breakers against the coast, and on the other the marañon vanishing in the hazy distance of the primitive forest.
the frequent showers and snow-falls of the puna naturally give rise to numerous swamps and lagunes, which afford nourishment to an abundance of birds,—such as the beautiful snow-white huachua goose (chloéphaga melanoptera), with dark-green wings of a metallic lustre; the licli, a species of plover; the ibis; the long-legged flamingo; the quiulla gull (larus serranus), and the gigantic coot (fulica gigantea), which, unable to fly, dives in the cold waters, and builds its nest on the solitary stones which rise above the surface.
to the aboriginal animals of the puna man has added the horse, the ox, the dog, and the sheep. in the more sheltered valleys there are estates possessing from 60,000 to 80,000 sheep, and from 400 to 500 oxen. during the wet season the herds are driven into the altos or highest regions, often to a height of 15,000 feet; but when the frosty nights of the dry period of the year parch the grass, they are obliged to descend to the swampy valleys, where they have much to suffer from hunger. in many parts of the puna, wild bulls render travelling very dangerous, as they sometimes rush upon man without any previous notice, though they generally announce their approach by a hoarse bellowing. but even then it is almost impossible to escape them in the open plain, and more than once tschudi was only able, by a well-aimed shot, to save himself from the attack of one of these formidable animals.
though not so dangerous, the half-wild puna dogs (canis ingæ, tschudi) are extremely troublesome to the traveller,—false, spiteful animals, which ferociously attack enemies far stronger than themselves; and, like the bull-dog, will rather suffer themselves to be cut to pieces than retreat. they have a29 particular antipathy to the white race, and it is rather a bold undertaking for the european traveller to approach the hut of an indian that is guarded by these animals.
the frosts of winter and an eternal spring are nowhere found in closer proximity than in the peruvian highlands, for deep valleys cleave the windy puna; and when the traveller, benumbed by the cold blasts of the mountain-plains, descends into these sheltered gorges he almost suddenly finds himself transported from a northern climate to a terrestrial paradise. situated at a height where the enervating power of the tropical sun is not felt, and where at the same time the air is not too rarefied, these pleasant mountain vales, protected by their rocky walls against the gusts of the puna, enjoy all the advantages of a genial sky. here the astonished european sees himself surrounded by the rich corn-fields, the green lucerne meadows, and the well-known fruit trees of his distant home, so that he might almost fancy that some friendly enchanter had transported him to his native country, if the cactuses and the agaves on the mountain-slopes by day, and the constellations of another hemisphere by night, did not remind him of the vast distance which separates him from the land of his birth.
there are regions in this remarkable country where the traveller may in the morning leave the snow-decked puna hut, and before sunset pluck pine-apples and bananas on the cultivated margin of the primeval forest; where in the morning the stunted grasses and arid lichens of the naked plain remind him of the arctic regions, and where he may repose at night under the fronds of gigantic palms.
