their wide extension.—climate of the regions they inhabit.—their physical appearance.—their dress.—snow huts.—the kayak, or the baidar.—hunting apparatus and weapons.—enmity between the esquimaux and the red indian.—the “bloody falls.”—chase of the reindeer.—bird-catching.—whale-hunting.—various stratagems employed to catch the seal.—the “keep-kuttuk.”—bear-hunting.—walrus-hunting.—awaklok and myouk.—the esquimaux dog.—games and sports.—angekoks.—moral character.—self-reliance.—intelligence.—iligliuk.—commercial eagerness of the esquimaux.—their voracity.—seasons of distress.
of all the uncivilized nations of the globe none range over a wider space than the esquimaux, whose various tribes extend from greenland and labrador, over all the coasts of arctic america, to the aleutic chain and the extreme north-eastern point of asia. many are independent, others subject to the russian, danish, or british rule. in baffin’s bay and lancaster sound they accost the whale-fisher; they meet him in the icy sea beyond bering’s straits; and while their most southerly tribes dwell as low as the latitude of vienna, others sojourn as high as the 80th degree of northern latitude, and probably roam even still higher on the still undiscovered coasts beyond—a nearness to the pole no other race is known to reach.
the old scandinavian settlers in greenland expressed their dislike for them in the contemptuous name of skraelingers (screamers or wretches); the seamen of the hudson’s bay ships, who trade annually with the natives of northern labrador and the savage islands, have long called them “seymos” or “suckemos,” names evidently derived from the cries of “seymo,” or “teymo,” with which they greet the arrival of the ships; they speak of themselves simply as “inuit,” or men.
with few exceptions the whole of the vast region they inhabit lies beyond the extremest limits of forest growth, in the most desolate and inhospitable countries of the globe. the rough winds of the polar sea almost perpetually blow over their bleak domains, and thus only a few plants of the hardest nature—lichens and mosses, grasses, saxifragas, and willows—are able to subsist there, and to afford a scanty supply of food to a few land animals and birds. ill indeed would it fare with the esquimaux, if they were reduced to live upon the niggardly produce of the soil; but the sea, with its cetaceans and fishes, amply provides for their wants. thus they are never found at any considerable distance from the ocean, and they line a considerable part of the coasts of the arctic seas without ever visiting the interior.
it may easily be supposed that a race whose eastern branches have for several centuries been under the influence of the danes and english, while in the extreme west it has long been forced to submit to russian tyranny, and whose central and northern tribes rarely come into contact with europeans, must291 show some variety in its manners and mode of life, and that the same description is not applicable in all points to the disciples of the moravian brothers in labrador or greenland, to the greek-catholic aleuts, and to the far more numerous heathen esquimaux of continental america, or of the vast archipelago beyond its northern shores. upon the whole, however, it is curious to observe how exactly, amidst all diversity of time and place, these people have preserved unaltered their habits and manners. the broad, flat face, widest just below the eyes, the forehead generally narrow and tapering upward; the eyes narrow and more or less oblique; all indicate a mongol or tartar type, differing greatly from the features of the conterminous red indian tribes. their complexion, when relieved from smoke and dirt, also approaches more nearly to white than that of their copper-colored neighbors. most of the men are rather under the medium english size, but they can not be said to be a dwarfish race. thus simpson saw in camden bay three esquimaux who measured from five feet ten inches to six feet; and among the natives of smith strait, kane, a rather short man, met with one a foot taller than himself. the females, however, are all comparatively short. the esquimaux are all remarkably broad-shouldered, and though their muscles are not so firm as those of the european seamen, yet they surpass in bodily strength all the other natives of america. in both sexes the hands and feet are remarkably small and well-formed. from exercise in hunting the seal and walrus, the muscles of the arms and back are much developed in the men, who are moreover powerful wrestlers. when young, the esquimaux looks cheerful and good-humored, and the females exhibit, when laughing, a set of very white teeth. could they be induced to wash their faces, many of these savage beauties would be found to possess a complexion scarcely a shade darker than that of a deep brunette; but though disinclined to ablutions, for which the severity of their climate may serve as an excuse, they are far from neglecting the arts of the toilette.
unlike the hare indian and dog-rib females, in whom the hard rule of their lords and masters has obliterated every trace of female vanity, the esquimaux women tastefully plait their straight, black, and glossy hair; and hence we may infer that greater deference is paid to them by the men. they also generally tattoo their chin, forehead, and cheeks, not, however, as in the south sea islands, with elaborate patterns, but with a few simple lines, which have a not unpleasing effect.
from bering’s straits eastward as far as the mackenzie, the males pierce the lower lip near each angle of the mouth, and fill the apertures with labrets of blue or green quartz, or of ivory resembling buttons. many also pierce the septum of the nose, and insert a dentalium shell or ivory needle. like the red indians, they are fond of beads, but their most common ornament consists in strings of teeth of the fox, wolf, or musk-ox—sometimes many hundreds in number—which are either attached to the lower part of the jacket, or fastened as a belt round the waist.
their dress is admirably adapted to the severity of their climate. with their two pair of breeches made of reindeer or seal skin, the outer one having the hair outside and the inner one next the body, and their two jackets—of292 which the upper one is provided with a great hood—with their water-tight seal-skin boots, lined with the downy skins of birds, and their enormous gloves, they bid defiance to the severest cold, and even in the hardest weather pursue their occupations in the open air whenever the moon is in the sky, or during the doubtful meridian twilight. the women are perfect in the art of making water-tight shirts, or “kamleikas,” of the entrails of the seal or walrus, which in summer serve to replace their heavy skin jackets. they also sew their boots so tight that not the slightest wet can penetrate, and with a neatness of which the best shoemaker in europe might be proud. the dress of the two sexes is much alike, the outer jacket having a pointed skirt before and behind, but that of the females is a little longer. the women also wear larger hoods, in which they carry their children; and sometimes (as in labrador) the inner boot has in front a long, pointed flap, to answer the same purpose.
the esquimaux are equally expert in the construction of their huts. as soon as the lengthening days induce the tribes about cape bathurst and the mouth of the mackenzie to move seaward on the ice to the seal-hunt, a marvellous system of architecture comes into use, unknown among any other american nations. the fine pure snow has by that time acquired, under the action of the winds and frosts, sufficient coherence to form an admirable light building material, which the esquimaux skillfully employ for the erection of most comfortable dome-shaped houses. a circle is first traced on the smooth surface of the snow, and slabs for raising the walls cut from within, so as to clear a space down to the ice, which is to form the floor of the dwelling, and whose evenness was previously ascertained by probing. the slabs for the dome are cut from some neighboring spot. the crevices between the slabs are plugged up, and the seams closed, by throwing a few shovelfuls of loose snow over the fabric. two men generally work together, and when the dome is completed the one within cuts a low door and creeps out. the walls being only three or four inches thick, admit a very agreeable light, which serves for ordinary purposes; if more is required, a window of transparent ice is introduced. the proper thickness of the walls is of some importance; one of a few inches excludes the wind, yet keeps down the damp so as to prevent dripping from the interior. the furniture of this crystal hut is also formed of snow (the seats, the table, the sleeping-places), and, when covered with skins, is very comfortable. by means of antechambers and porches, with the opening turned to leeward, warmth is insured, and social intercourse facilitated by contiguous building, doors of communication, and covered passages. by constant practice the esquimaux can raise such huts almost as quickly as we could pitch a tent. when m’clintock for a few nails hired four esquimaux to build a hut for his party, they completed it in an hour, though it was eight feet in diameter and five and a half feet high.
in spite of its fragile materials, this snow-house is durable, for the wind has little effect on its dome-like form, and it resists the thaw until the sun acquires a very considerable power. of course a strong fire could not possibly be made within, but such is not needed by the esquimaux. the train-oil lamp suffices to dry his wet clothes and boots when he returns from hunting; and the crowding293 of the inmates engenders a sufficiently high temperature to keep him warm. having also a decided predilection for raw flesh and fat, he requires no great expenditure of fuel to cook his dinner. the lower part of his dwelling being under the surface of the snow, likewise promotes its warmth.
but of whatever materials the hut of the esquimaux may be constructed—of snow, as i have just described, or, as is frequently the case, of stones, or earth, or drift-wood—everywhere, from bering’s straits to smith sound, it is equally well adapted to the climate and to circumstances. thus when dr. scoresby landed in 1822 on the eastern coast of greenland, he discovered some deserted esquimaux huts, which gave proof both of the severity of the climate, and of the ingenuity evinced in counteracting its rigors. a horizontal tunnel about fifteen feet long, and so low as to render it necessary to creep through on hands and feet, opens with one end to the south, and leads through the other into the interior of the hut. this rises but little above the surface of the earth, and, as it is generally overgrown with moss or grass, is scarcely to be distinguished from the neighboring soil. the floor of the tunnel is frequently on a level with that of the hut, but often also it is made to slant downward and upward, so that the colder, and consequently heavier, air without is still more effectually kept off from the warmer air within; and thus the esquimaux, without ever having studied physics, make a practical use of one of its fundamental laws. but their most ingenious invention is unquestionably that of the one-seated boat, the “kayak,” or the “baidar.” a light, long, and narrow frame of wood, or seal or walrus bone, is covered water-tight with seal-skin, leaving but one circular hole in the middle. in this the esquimaux sits with outstretched legs, and binds a sack (which is formed of the intestines of the whale, or of the skins of young seals, and fits in the opening) so tightly round his middle, that even in a heavy sea not a drop of water can penetrate into the boat. striking with his light oar (which is paddled at each extremity) alternately to the right and to the left, his spear or harpoon before him, and maintaining his equilibrium with all the dexterity of a rope-dancer, he flies like an arrow over the water; and should a wave upset him, he knows how to right himself by the action of the paddle. the “oomiak,” or women’s boat, likewise consists of a frame-work covered with seal-skins, and is roomy enough to hold ten or twelve people, with benches for the women who row or paddle. the mast supports a triangular sail made of the entrails of seals, and easily distended by the wind. the men would consider it beneath their dignity to row in one of these omnibus boats; they leave this labor entirely to the women, who, to the tact of a monotonous song, slowly propel the oomiak through the water. judging of foreign customs by their own, the esquimaux between the mackenzie and coppermine rivers made the strange mistake, as sir john richardson relates, of supposing that the english sailors whom they saw rowing in company were women. one of them even asked whether all white females had beards.
the weapons of the esquimaux, and their various fishing and hunting implements, likewise show great ingenuity and skill. their oars are tastefully inlaid with walrus-teeth; they have several kinds of spears or darts, adapted to294 the size of the various animals which they hunt; and their elastic bows, strongly bound with strings of seal-gut, drive a six-foot arrow with unerring certainty to a distant mark. to bring down a larger animal, the shaft is armed with a sharp flint or a pointed bone; if intended to strike a bird, it is smaller, and blunted.
the harpoons and lances used in killing whales or seals have long shafts of wood or of the narwhal’s tooth, and the barbed point is so constructed that, when the blow takes effect, it is left sticking in the body of the animal, while the shaft attached to it by a string is disengaged from the socket, and becomes a buoy of wood. seal-skins, blown up like bladders, are likewise used as buoys for the whale-spears, being adroitly stripped from the animal so that all the natural apertures are easily made air-tight.
with equal industry and skill the esquimaux put to use almost every part of the land and marine animals which they chase. knives, spear-points, and fish-hooks are made of the horns and bones of the deer. the ribs of the whale are used in roofing huts or in the construction of sledges, where drift-timber is scarce. strong cord is made from strips of seal-skin hide, and the sinews of musk-oxen and deer furnish bow-strings, or cord to make nets or snares. in default of drift-wood, the bones of the whale are employed for the construction of their sledges, in pieces fitted to each other with neatness, and firmly sewed together.
during the long confinement to their huts or “igloos” in the dark winter months, the men execute some very fair figures in bone, and in walrus or fossil ivory, besides making fish-hooks, knife-handles, and other instruments neatly of these materials, or of metal or wood.
thus in all these respects the esquimaux are as superior to the red indians as they are in strength and personal courage; and yet no norwegian can more utterly despise the filthy lapp, and no orthodox mussulman look down with greater contempt upon a “giaour,” than the loucheux or cheppewayan upon the esquimaux, who in his eyes is no better than a brute, and whom he approaches only to kill.
in his “voyage to the coppermine river” hearne relates a dreadful instance of this bloodthirsty hatred. the indians who accompanied him having heard that some esquimaux had erected their summer huts near the mouth of that river, were at once seized with a tiger-like fury. hearne, the only european of the party, had not the power to restrain them, and he might as well have attempted to touch the heart of an ice-bear as to move the murderous band to pity. as craftily and noiselessly as serpents they drew nigh, and, when the midnight sun verged on the horizon, with a dreadful yell they burst on the huts of their unsuspecting victims. not one of them escaped, and the monsters delighted to prolong the misery of their death-struggle by repeated wounds. an old woman had both her eyes torn out before she received the mortal blow. a young girl fled to hearne for protection, who used every effort to save her, but in vain. in 1821 some human skulls lying on the spot still bore testimony to this cruel slaughter, and the name of the “bloody falls,” given by hearne to the scene of the massacre, will convey its memory to distant ages. no wonder295 that the hate of the esquimaux is no less intense, and that they also pursue the indians, wherever they can, with their spears and arrows, like wild beasts.
“year after year,” says sir john richardson, “sees the esquimaux on the polar coast of america occupied in a uniform circle of pursuits. when the rivers open in spring, they proceed to the rapids and falls to spear the salmon, which at that season come swimming stream upward. at the same time, or earlier in more southern localities, they hunt the reindeer, which drop their young on the coasts and islands while the snow is only partially melted. where the open country affords the huntsman no opportunity of approaching his game unperceived, deep pits are dug in the snowy ravines, and superficially covered with snow-tablets. the wind soon effaces the traces of the human hand, and thus many reindeer are snared.”
in summer the reindeer are killed partly by driving them from islands or narrow necks of land into the sea, and then spearing them from their kayaks, and partly by shooting them from behind heaps of stones raised for the purpose of watching them, and imitating their peculiar bellow or grunt. among the various artifices which they employ for this purpose, one of the most ingenious consists in two men walking directly from the deer they wish to kill, when the animal almost always follows them. as soon as they arrive at a large stone, one of the men hides behind it with his bow, while the other, continuing to walk on, soon leads the deer within range of his companion’s arrows.
the multitudes of swans, ducks, and geese resorting to the morasses of the northern coasts to breed, likewise aid in supplying the esquimaux with food during their short but busy summer of two months. for their destruction a very ingenious instrument has been invented. six or eight small balls made of walrus-tooth and pierced in the middle are separately attached to as many thongs of animal sinew, which are tied together at the opposite end. when cast into the air the diverging balls describe circles—like the spokes of a wheel—and woe to the unfortunate bird that comes within their reach.
on the coasts frequented by whales, the month of august is devoted to the pursuit of these animals; a successful chase insuring a comfortable winter to a whole community. their capture requires an association of labor; hence along the coasts of the polar sea the esquimaux unite their huts into villages, for whose site a bold point of coast is generally chosen, where the water is deep enough to float a whale.
when one of these huge creatures is seen lying on the water, a dozen kayaks or more cautiously paddle up astern of him, till a single canoe, preceding the rest, comes close to him on one quarter, so as to enable the men to drive the spear into the animal with all the force of both arms. this spear has a long line of thong and an inflated seal-skin attached to it. the stricken whale immediately dives; but when he re-appears after some time, all the canoes again paddle towards him, some warning being given by the seal-skin buoy floating on the surface. each man being furnished like the first, they repeat the blow as often as they find an opportunity, till perhaps every line has been thus employed. after chasing him in this manner sometimes for half a day, he is at length so wearied by the resistance of the buoys and exhausted by loss of296 blood as to be obliged to rise more and more often to the surface, and is finally killed and towed ashore.
though in many parts seals are caught at every season of the year, yet the great hunt takes place in spring, when they play in the open lanes near the coasts, or come out on the ice to bask in the sun. in spite of their wariness, they are no match for the esquimaux, who have carefully studied all their habits from infancy. sometimes the hunter approaches them by imitating their forms and motions so perfectly that the poor animals are not undeceived until one of them is struck with his lance; or else, by means of a white screen pushed forward on a sledge, the hunter comes within range and picks out the best-conditioned of the band. as the season draws near midsummer, the seals are more approachable; their eyes being so congested by the glare of the sun that they are sometimes nearly blind. in winter they are assaulted while working at their breathing-holes or when coming up for respiration.
if an esquimaux has any reason to suppose that a seal is busy gnawing beneath the ice, he immediately attaches himself to the place, and seldom leaves it, even in the severest frost, till he has succeeded in killing the animal. for this purpose he first builds a snow-wall about four feet in height, to shelter him from the wind, and seating himself under the lee of it, deposits his spears, lines, and other implements upon several little forked sticks inserted into the snow, in order to prevent the smallest noise being made in moving them when wanted. but the most curious precaution consists in tying his own knees together with a thong so securely as to prevent any rustling of his clothes, which might otherwise alarm the animal. in this situation a man will sit quietly sometimes for hours together, attentively listening to any noise made by the seal, and sometimes using the “keep-kuttuk” in order to ascertain whether the animal is still at work below. this simple little instrument—which affords another striking proof of esquimaux ingenuity—is merely a slender rod of bone (as delicate as a fine wire, that the seal may not see it), nicely rounded, and having a point at one end and a knob at the other. it is inserted into the ice, and the knob remaining above the surface, informs the fisherman by its motion whether the seal is employed in making his hole; if not, it remains undisturbed, and the attempt is given up in that place. when the hunter supposes the hole to be nearly completed, he cautiously lifts his spear (to which the line has been previously attached), and as soon as the blowing of the seal is distinctly heard—and the ice consequently very thin—he drives it into him with the force of both arms, and then cuts away with his “panna,” or well-sharpened knife, the remaining crust of ice, to enable him to repeat the wounds and get him out. the “neituk” (phoca hispida), being the smallest seal, is held, while struggling, either simply by hand, or by putting the line round a spear with the point stuck into the ice. for the “oguke” (phoca barbata), the line is passed round the man’s leg or arm; and for a walrus, round his body, his feet being at the same time firmly set against a hummock of ice, in which position these people can, from habit, hold against a very heavy strain. a boy of fifteen is equal to the killing of a “neituk,” but it requires a full-grown person to master either of the larger animals. this sport is not without the danger which adds to the excitement297 of success, particularly if the creature struck by the hunter be a large seal or walrus; for woe betide him if he does not instantly plant his feet firmly in the ice, and throw himself in such a position that the strain on the line is as nearly as possible brought into the direction of the length of the spine of his back and axis of his lower limbs. a transverse pull from one of these powerful animals would double him up across the air-hole, and perhaps break his back; or if the opening be large, as it often is when the spring is advanced, he would be dragged under water and drowned.
as the polar bear is as great a seal-hunter as the esquimaux, one of the usual methods employed by the latter to catch these bears is to imitate the motions of the seal by lying flat on the ice until the bear approaches sufficiently near to insure a good aim; but a gun is necessary to practise this stratagem with success. seeman (“voyage of the herald”) mentions another ingenious mode of capturing the bear by taking advantage of the well-known voracity of the animal, which generally swallows its food without much mastication. a thick and strong piece of whalebone, about four inches broad and two feet long, is rolled up into a small compass, and carefully enveloped in blubber, forming a round ball. it is then placed in the open air at a low temperature, where it soon becomes hard and frozen. the natives, armed with their knives, bows, and arrows, together with this frozen bait, proceed in quest of the bear. as soon as the animal is seen, one of the natives discharges an arrow at it; the monster, smarting from this assault, chases the party, then in full retreat, until, meeting with the frozen blubber dropped in his path, he greedily swallows it, and continues the pursuit—doubtless fancying that there must be more where that came from. the natural heat of the body soon causes the blubber to thaw, when the whalebone, thus freed, springs back, and frightfully lacerates the stomach. the writhing brute falls down in helpless agony, and the esquimaux, hurrying to the spot, soon put an end to his sufferings.
the esquimaux of smith sound hunt the bear with the assistance of their dogs, which are carefully trained not to engage in contest with the bear, but to retard his flight. while one engrosses his attention ahead, a second attacks him in the rear, always alert, and each protecting the other; and thus it rarely happens that they are seriously injured, or that they fail to delay the animal until their masters come up. if there be two hunters, the bear is killed easily; for one makes a feint of thrusting a spear at the right side, and as the animal turns with his arms towards the threatened attack, the left is unprotected, and receives the death-wound. but if the hunter is alone, he grasps the lance firmly in his hands, and provokes the animal to pursue him by moving rapidly across its path, and then running as if to escape. but hardly is its long, unwieldy body extended for the chase, than, with a rapid jump, the hunter doubles on his track, and runs back towards his first position. the bear is in the act of turning after him again, when the lance is plunged into the left side below the shoulder. so dexterously has this thrust to be made, that an unpractised hunter has often to leave his spear in the side of his prey and run for his life; but even then, if well-aided by the dogs, a cool, skillful man seldom fails to kill his adversary.
298 while the seal, narwhal, and white whale furnish the staple food of the more southern greenlander, the walrus is the chief resource of the smith sound esquimaux. the manner of hunting this animal depends much on the season of the year. in spring, or the breeding-season, when the walrus is in his glory, he is taken in two ways. sometimes he has risen by the side of an iceberg, where the currents have worn away the floe, or through a tide crack, and, enjoying the sunshine too long, finds his retreat cut off by the freezing up of the opening; for like the seal, the walrus can only work from below at his breathing-hole. when thus caught, the esquimaux, who with keen hunter-craft are scouring the floes, scent him out by their dogs and spear him. frequently the female and her calf, accompanied by the grim-visaged father, are seen surging, in loving trios, from crack to crack, and sporting in the openings. while thus on their tour, they invite their vigilant enemies to the second method of capture. this also is by the lance and harpoon; but it often becomes a regular battle, the male gallantly fronting the assault, and charging the hunters with furious bravery. in the fall, when the pack is but partially closed, the walrus are found in numbers, hanging around the neutral region of mixed ice and water, and, as this becomes solid with the advance of winter, following it more and more to the south.
the esquimaux at this season approach them over the young ice, and assail them in cracks and holes with harpoon and line. this fishery, as the season grows colder, darker, and more tempestuous, is fearfully hazardous. kane relates how, during a time of famine, two of his esquimaux friends, awaklok and myouk, determined to seek the walrus on the open ice. they succeeded in killing a large male, and were returning to their village, when a north wind broke up the ice, and they found themselves afloat. the impulse of a european would have been to seek the land; but they knew that the drift was always most dangerous on the coast, and urged their dogs towards the nearest iceberg. they reached it after a struggle, and, by great efforts, made good their landing, with their dogs and the half-butchered carcass of the walrus. it was at the close of the last moonlight of december, and a complete darkness settled around them. they tied the dogs down to knobs of ice, to prevent their losing their foothold, and prostrated themselves, to escape being blown off by the violence of the wind. at first the sea broke over them, but they gained a higher level, and built a sort of screen of ice. on the fifth night afterwards, so far as they could judge, one of myouk’s feet was frozen, and awaklok lost his great toe by frost bite. but they did not lose courage, and ate their walrus-meat as they floated slowly to the south. it was towards the close of the second moonlight, after a month’s imprisonment, such as only these iron men could endure, that they found the berg had grounded. they liberated their dogs as soon as the young ice could bear their weight, and attaching long lines to them, which they cut from the hide of the dead walrus, they succeeded in hauling themselves through the water-space which always surrounds an iceberg, and reaching safe ice. they returned to their village like men raised from the dead, to meet a welcome, but to meet famine along with it.
299 in the form of their bodies, their short pricked ears, thick furry coat, and bushy tail, the dogs of the esquimaux so nearly resemble the wolf of these regions, that when of a light or brindled color, they may easily at a little distance be mistaken for that animal; but an eye accustomed to both, perceives that the wolf always keeps his head down and his tail between his legs in running, whereas the dogs almost always carry their tails handsomely curled over the back. their hair in the winter is from three to four inches long; but besides this nature furnishes them during this rigorous season with a thick under-coating of close, soft wool, which enables them to brave the most inclement weather. they do not bark, but have a long melancholy howl, like that of the wolf. when drawing a sledge, they have a simple harness of deer or seal skin going round the neck by one bight, and another for each of the fore legs, with a single thong leading over the back, and attached to the sledge as a trace. though they appear at first sight to be huddled together without regard to regularity, considerable attention is really paid to their arrangement, particularly in the selection of a dog of peculiar spirit and sagacity, who is allowed by a longer trace to precede the rest as leader, and to whom, in turning to the right or left, the driver usually addresses himself, using certain words as the carters do with us. to these a good leader attends with admirable precision (especially if his own name be repeated at the same time), looking behind over his shoulder with great earnestness, as if listening to the directions of the driver, who sits quite low on the fore part of the sledge, his whip in hand, and his feet overhanging the snow on one side.
on rough ground, as among hummocks of ice, the sledge would be frequently overturned if the driver did not repeatedly get off, and, by lifting or drawing it to one side, steer it clear of those obstacles. at all times, indeed, except on a smooth and well-made road, he is pretty constantly employed thus with his feet, and this, together with his never-ceasing vociferations and frequent use of the whip, renders the driving of one of these vehicles by no means a pleasant or easy task.
“the whip,” says kane, who from assiduous practice at length attained a considerable proficiency in its use, “is six yards long, and the handle but sixteen inches—a short lever to throw out such a length of seal-hide. learn to do it, however, with a masterly sweep, or else make up your mind to forego driving sledges; for the dogs are guided solely by the lash, and you must be able to hit not only any particular dog of a team of twelve, but to accompany the feat also with a resounding crack. after this you find that, to get your lash back, involves another difficulty; for it is apt to entangle itself among the dogs and lines, or to fasten itself cunningly round bits of ice, so as to drag you head over heels into the snow. the secret by which this complicated set of requirements is fulfilled consists in properly describing an arc from the shoulder with a stiff elbow, giving the jerk to the whip-handle from the hand and wrist alone. the lash trails behind as you travel, and when thrown forward is allowed to extend itself without an effort to bring it back. you wait patiently, after giving the projectile impulse, until it unwinds its slow length, reaches the end of its tether, and cracks to tell you that it is at its journey’s end. such a crack on300 the ear or fore foot of an unfortunate dog is signalized by a howl quite unmistakable in its import.”
the mere labor of using this whip is such that the esquimaux travel in couples, one sledge after the other. the hinder dogs follow mechanically, and thus require no whip; and the drivers change about so as to rest each other.
in the summer, when the absence of snow prevents the use of sledges, the dogs are still made useful, on journeys and hunting excursions, by being employed to carry burdens in a kind of saddle-bags laid across their shoulders. a stout dog thus accoutred will accompany his master laden with a weight of about twenty or twenty-five pounds.
the scent of the esquimaux dog is excellent, and this property is turned to account in finding the seal-holes, which they will discover entirely by the smell at a very great distance. the track of a single deer upon the snow will in like manner set them off at full gallop at least a quarter of a mile before they arrive at it, and with the same alacrity they pursue the bear or the musk-ox. indeed, the only animal which they are not eager to chase is the wolf, of which they seem to have an instinctive dread, giving notice at night of their approach to the huts by a loud and continued howl.
in spite of their invaluable services, they are treated with great severity by their masters, who never caress them, and, indeed, scarcely ever take any notice of them except to punish them. but notwithstanding this rough treatment, the attachment of the dogs to their masters is very great, and this they display, after a short absence, by jumping up and licking their faces all over with extreme delight.
it may be supposed that among so cheerful a people as the esquimaux there are many games or sports practised. one of their exhibitions consists in making hideous faces by drawing both lips into the mouth, poking forward the chin, squinting frightfully, occasionally shutting one eye, and moving the head from side to side as if the neck had been dislocated.
another performance consists in repeating certain words with a guttural tone resembling ventriloquism, staring at the same time in such a manner as to make their eyes appear ready to burst out of their sockets with the exertion. two or more will sometimes stand up face to face, and, with great quickness and regularity, respond to each other, keeping such exact time that the sound appears to come from one throat instead of several. they are fond of music, both vocal and instrumental, but their singing is not much better than a howl.
the esquimaux have neither magistrates nor laws, yet they are orderly in their conduct towards each other. the constitution of their society is patriarchal, but there is no recognition of mastership except such as may be claimed by superior prowess. the rule of the head of a family lasts only as long as he has vigor enough to secure success in hunting. when his powers of mind and body are impaired by age, he at once sinks in the social scale, associates with the women, and takes his seat in the oomiak. they rarely quarrel among themselves, and settle their disputes either by boxing, the parties sitting down and striking blows alternately until one of them gives in, or before a court of honor, where, after the accuser and the accused have richly abused and ridiculed301 each other, the case is decided by the priests or “angekoks.” these wonder-workers, who enjoy a great reputation as sorcerers, soothsayers, or medicine-men, employ ventriloquism, swallow knives, extract stones from various parts of their bodies, and use other deceptions to impress their dupes with a high opinion of their supernatural powers. like the members of the learned professions elsewhere, they have a certain language or jargon of their own, in which they communicate with each other. the heathen esquimaux do not appear to have any idea of the existence of one supreme being, but believe in a number of spirits, with whom on certain occasions the angekoks pretend to hold mysterious intercourse. even in old greenland the influence and teachings of the missionaries have not entirely obliterated the old superstitions, and the mysteries of the angekok, though not openly recognized near the danish settlements, still hold their secret power over many a native who is professedly a christian.
captain hall highly praises the good-nature of the esquimaux; but in their behavior to the old and infirm they betray the insensibility, or rather inhumanity, commonly found among savage nations, frequently abandoning them to their fate on their journeys, and allowing them to perish in the wilderness.
among themselves “tiglikpok” (he is a thief) is a term of reproach, but they steal without scruple from strangers, and are not ashamed when detected, nor do they blush when reproved. parry taxes them with want of gratitude; and though they have no doubt rendered good services to many of our arctic navigators, yet sometimes, when they fancied themselves the stronger party, they have not hesitated to attack or to murder the strangers, and their good behavior can only be relied upon as long as there is the power of enforcing it.
one of the most amiable traits of their character is the kindness with which they treat their children, whose gentleness and docility are such as to occasion their parents little trouble, and to render severity towards them quite unnecessary. even from their earliest infancy they possess that quiet disposition, gentleness of demeanor, and uncommon evenness of temper for which, in mature age, they are for the most part distinguished. “they are just as fond of play,” says parry, “as any other young people, and of the same kind, only that while an english child draws a cart of wood, an esquimaux of the same age has a sledge of whalebone; and for the superb baby-house of the former, the latter builds a miniature hut of snow, and begs a lighted wick from her mother’s lamp to illuminate the little dwelling.”
when not more than eight years old, the boys are taken by their fathers on their sealing excursions, where they begin to learn their future business; and even at that early age they are occasionally intrusted to bring home a sledge and dogs from a distance of several miles over the ice. at the age of eleven we see a boy with his water-tight boots, a spear in his hand, and a small coil of line at his back, accompanying the men to the fishery under every circumstance; and from this time his services daily increase in value to the whole tribe.
in intelligence and susceptibility of civilization the esquimaux are far superior302 to the neighboring indians. they have such a good idea of the hydrography and bearings of the sea-coasts which they frequent as to draw accurate charts of them. thus parry, in his second voyage, was guided in his operations by the sketches of the talented iligliuk; and while beechey was at kotzebue sound, the natives constructed a chart of the coast upon the sand, first marking out the coast-line with a stick, and regulating the distance by the day’s journey. the hills and ranges of mountains were next shown by elevations of sand or stone, and the islands represented by heaps of pebbles, their proportions being duly attended to. when the mountains and islands were erected, the villages and fishing-stations were marked by a number of sticks placed upright, in imitation of those which are put up on the coast wherever these people fix their abode. in this manner a complete hydrographical plan was drawn from cape derby to cape krusenstern.
the esquimaux have a decided predilection for commercial pursuits, and undertake long voyages for the purposes of trade. thus on the continental line of coast west of the mackenzie, the point barrow esquimaux proceed every summer, with sledges laden with whale or seal oil, whalebone, walrus-tusks, thongs of walrus hide, and seal-skins, to the colville river, where they meet the esquimaux from kotzebue sound, who offer them in exchange articles procured from the tchuktchi in the previous summer, such as iron and copper kettles, knives, tobacco, beads, and tin for making pipes. about ten days are spent in bartering, dancing, and revelry, on the flat ground between the tents of each party, pitched a bow-shot apart. the time is one of pleasant excitement, and is passed nearly without sleep. about july 20 this friendly meeting is at an end: the kotzebue sound esquimaux ascend the colville on their way homeward, while those from point barrow descend to the sea, to pursue their voyage eastward to barter reef, where they obtain in traffic from the eastern esquimaux various skins, stone lamps, english knives, small white beads, and, lately, guns and ammunition, which in the year following they exchange for the kotzebue sound articles at the colville, along with the produce of their own sea-hunts.
in this manner, articles of russian manufacture, originally purchased at the fair of ostrownoje by the tchuktchi, or from the factors of the russian fur company on sledge island, in bering’s straits, find their way from tribe to tribe along the american coast as far as repulse bay, and compete among the tribes of the mackenzie with articles from sheffield or birmingham.
a hunter’s life is always precarious—a constant alternation between abundance and want; and though the esquimaux strikes many a seal, white-fish, or walrus in the course of the year, yet these animals do not abound at all seasons, and there are other causes, besides improvidence, which soon exhaust the stores laid by in times of abundance. active exercise and constant exposure to cold are remarkable promoters of atomic change in the human body, and a very large supply of food is absolutely necessary to counterbalance the effects of a rapid organic combustion. as a matter of curiosity, parry once tried how much an esquimaux lad would, if freely supplied, consume in the course of a day. the following articles were weighed before being given to him:303 he was twenty hours in getting through them, and certainly did not consider the quantity extraordinary.
lbs. oz.
sea-horse flesh, hard frozen 4 4
” ” boiled 4 4
bread and bread-dust 1 12
total of solids 10 4
the fluids were in fair proportion, viz., rich gravy soup, 1¼ pint; raw spirits, 3 wine-glasses; strong grog, 1 tumbler; water, 1 gallon 1 pint.15
kane averages the esquimaux ration in a season of plenty at eight or ten pounds a day, with soup and water to the extent of half a gallon, and finds in this excessive consumption—which is rather a necessity of their peculiar life and organization than the result of gluttony—the true explanation of the scarcity from which they frequently suffer. in times of abundance they hunt indomitably without the loss of a day, and stow away large quantities of meat. an excavation is made either on the mainland—or, what is preferred, on an island inaccessible to foxes—and the flesh is stacked inside and covered with heavy stones. one such cache which kane met on a small island contained the flesh of ten walruses, and he knew of others equally large. but by their ancient custom, all share with all; and as they migrate in numbers as their necessities prompt, the tax on each particular settlement is not seldom so excessive that even considerable stores are unable to withstand the drain, and soon make way for pinching hunger, and even famine.
